Table of Contents

Cover

Praise for the Previous Editions

Also by Alister E. McGrath from Wiley-Blackwell

Title

Copyright

List of Figures

Preface to the Fourth Edition

How to Use This Book

On Notes and Further Reading

Map

1 The Reformation: An Introduction

The Cry for Reform

The Concept of “Reformation”

The Importance of Printing

The Use of the Vernacular in Theological Debates

The Social Context of the Reformation

The Religious Concerns of the Reformers: A Brief Overview

2 Christianity in the Late Middle Ages

The Growth of Popular Religion

The Rise in Anti-Clericalism

The Rise of Doctrinal Pluralism

A Crisis of Authority within the Church

An English Case Study: Lollardy

3 Humanism and the Reformation

The Concept of “Renaissance”

The Concept of “Humanism”

Kristeller’s View of Humanism

Ad Fontes – Back to the Fountainhead

Northern European Humanism

Erasmus of Rotterdam

Humanism and the Reformation – An Evaluation

4 Scholasticism and the Reformation

“Scholasticism” Defined

Scholasticism and the Universities

Types of Scholasticism

The Impact of Medieval Scholasticism upon the Reformation

5 The Reformers: A Biographical Introduction

Martin Luther (1483–1546)

Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531)

Philipp Melanchthon (1497–1560)

Martin Bucer (1491–1551)

John Calvin (1509–64)

6 The Return to the Bible

Scripture in the Middle Ages

The Humanists and the Bible

The Bible and the Protestant Reformation

The Catholic Response: Trent on Scripture and Tradition

7 The Doctrine of Justification by Faith

A Foundational Theme: Redemption through Christ

Justification and Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough

The Concept of “Forensic Justification”

Divergences among the Reformers on Justification

Theological Diplomacy: “Double Justification”

The Catholic Response: Trent on Justification

8 The Doctrine of the Church

The Background to the Reformation Debates: The Donatist Controversy

The Context of the Reformation Views on the Church

Luther on the Nature of the Church

The Radical View of the Church

Tensions within Luther’s Doctrine of the Church

Calvin on the Nature of the Church

The Debate over the Catholicity of the Church

The Council of Trent on the Church

9 The Doctrine of the Sacraments

The Background to the Sacramental Debates

The Sacraments and the Promises of Grace

Luther on the Sacraments

Zwingli on the Sacraments

Luther versus Zwingli: A Summary and Evaluation

Anabaptist Views on the Sacraments

Calvin on the Sacraments

The Catholic Response: Trent on the Sacraments

10 The Doctrine of Predestination

The Background to the Reformation Debates over Predestination

Zwingli on the Divine Sovereignty

Melanchthon’s Changing Views on Predestination

Calvin on Predestination

Predestination in Later Reformed Theology

11 The Political Thought of the Reformation

The Radical Reformation and Secular Authority

Luther’s Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms

Zwingli on the State and Magistrate

Bucer on Magistrate and Ministry

Calvin on Magistrate and Ministry

12 The Religious Ideas of the English Reformation

The Social Role of Religious Ideas: Germany and England

English Humanism

The Origins of the English Reformation: Henry VIII

The Consolidation of the English Reformation: Edward VI to Elizabeth I

Justification by Faith in the English Reformation

The Real Presence in the English Reformation

13 The Diffusion of the Thought of the Reformation

The Physical Agencies of Diffusion

The Diffusion of Ideas: The Key Texts

14 The Impact of Reformation Thought upon History

An Affirmative Attitude Toward the World

The Protestant Work Ethic

Reformation Thought and the Origins of Capitalism

Reformation Thought and Political Change

Reformation Thought and the Emergence of the Natural Sciences

Reformation Ecclesiologies and the Modern World

Conclusion

Appendix 1 A Glossary of Theological and Historical Terms

Appendix 2 English Translations of Major Primary Sources

John Calvin

Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam

Martin Luther

Huldrych Zwingli

Appendix 3 Standard Abbreviations of Major Journals and Sources

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

Appendix 4 How to Refer to Major Primary Sources

John Calvin

Desiderius Erasmus

Martin Luther

Huldrych Zwingli

Appendix 5 Referring to the Psalms in the Sixteenth Century

The Vulgate Psalm Numbers

Referring to Psalms

Appendix 6 Updating Reformation Bibliographies

Web Searches

The Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte Literature Supplement

Review Articles and Published Bibliographies

Journal Literature Searches

Abstracting Services

Appendix 7 Chronology of Political and Intellectual History

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

1 The Reformation: An Introduction

Figure 1.1 The Council of Trent, 4 December 1563 (oil on canvas), Italian School, (sixteenth century), Louvre, Paris, France. Formerly attributed to Titian (1488–1576); 23rd session of the Council. Louvre, Paris, France/Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art Library

Figure 1.2 Erasmus of Rotterdam in the print shop of his friend Johannes Froben of Basle.

2 Christianity in the Late Middle Ages

Figure 2.1 Palace and Bridge at Avignon. The Rhone river flows by the Pont Saint-Bénézet (commonly known as Pont d’Avignon) and the medieval Palais des Papes (Popes’ Palace).

3 Humanism and the Reformation

Figure 3.1 A scene from the medieval University of Padua. Veneto region: Padua, Bo Palace, university cloister.

Figure 3.2 Erasmus von Rotterdam, humanist, philologist, and church critic.

4 Scholasticism and the Reformation

Figure 4.1 Thomas Aquinas. Detail in Fra Angelico’s Crucifixion with the Virgin and Saints John the Evangelist, Dominic, and Thomas Aquinas. Florence, Museo di San Marco.

Figure 4.2 Seal of the University of Paris, fourteenth century. Woodcut with a watercolor wash.

5 The Reformers: A Biographical Introduction

Figure 5.1 Martin Luther, color lithograph, English School, twentieth century, after a nineteenth-century lithograph. Private collection/Ken Welsh/The Bridgeman Art Library

Figure 5.2 Ulrich Zwingli, Swiss Reformation divine. Chaplain to Swiss forces during Second War of Kappel when he was killed in battle. Copperplate engraving by Konrad Meyer (1618–89) from series of 90 portraits of fellow citizens of Zurich, c.1618–c.1689.

Figure 5.3 John Calvin, engraving by Clement de Jonghe (fl.1640–70). Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, France/Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art Library

6 The Return to the Bible

Figure 6.1 The four-horse chariot (Latin: Quadriga) on the Brandenburg Gate, Unter den Linden, Berlin. Medieval theological writers likened the four senses of Scripture to four horses pulling a chariot.

Figure 6.2 Title page of William Tyndale’s New Testament, printed in the 1530s, from The National and Domestic History of England by William Hickman Smith Aubrey (1858–1916) published London, c.1890 (litho), English School, nineteenth century. Private Collection/Ken Welsh/The Bridgeman Art Library

7 The Doctrine of Justification by Faith

Figure 7.1 The Pope’s selling of indulgences by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472–1553). Illustration from Martin Luther (?), Passional Christi und Antichristi, 1521. Woodcut.

Figure 7.2 View of Zurich, from Cosmographie Universelle by Sebastien Munster (1488–1552), Basle, published 1559. Woodcut, German School, sixteenth century. Bibliotheque des Arts Decoratifs, Paris, France/Archives Charmet/The Bridgeman Art Library

8 The Doctrine of the Church

Figure 8.1 Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430), bishop and doctor of the Church, presiding over community of monks. From Altar of Saint Augustine, 1480 (detail), by Master of Uttenheim or Neustift, late fifteenth century, Austrian.

Figure 8.2 Menno Simons, theologian, founder of the Mennonites (1496–1561), historical illustration, portrait, 1880.

9 The Doctrine of the Sacraments

Figure 9.1 Chalice of S. Gauzelin, tenth century, Nancy cathedral.

Figure 9.2 Baptism of Charles VI of France in Saint-Paul in Paris, December 6, 1368. His mother, Joan of Bourbon, holds him over the baptism font. Book illumination, French, c.1380, from Grandes Chroniques de France. MS français 20350, fol. 472 v. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale.

10 The Doctrine of Predestination

Figure 10.1 Double portrait of Martin Luther (1483–1546) (left) and Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560), by Lucas Cranach the Younger, oil on panel.

11 The Political Thought of the Reformation

Figure 11.1 German Peasants’ War (1524–26), armed peasants. Woodcut to a leaflet with the peasants’ 12 articles, 1525.

12 The Religious Ideas of the English Reformation

Figure 12.1 Henry VIII, King of England (1509–47), portrait, 1536, by Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543). Resin tempera on wood, 26 × 19 cm. Lugano, Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection.

Figure 12.2 Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I, the Drewe Portrait, late 1580s, oil on panel, by George Gower (1540–96, attr. to). Private collection.

13 The Diffusion of the Thought of the Reformation

Figure 13.1 Title page of the first edition of John Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion, published at Basle in 1536. The Granger Collection/TopFoto, TopFoto.co.uk

14 The Impact of Reformation Thought upon History

Figure 14.1 Detail of fruit and grain merchants, from De Sphaera, c.1470, vellum, by Cristoforo De Predis (c.1440/45–86) (attr. to). MS Lat 209 fol.6v Jupiter. Biblioteca Estense, Modena, Italy/Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art Library

Figure 14.2 Max Weber (1864–1920), sociologist, sociopolitical advocate. Germany, c.1917.

Guide

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Praise for the Previous Editions

“Theologically informed, lucid, supremely accessible: no wonder McGrath’s introduction to the Reformation has staying power!”Denis R. Janz, Loyola University

“Alister McGrath … is one of the best scholars and teachers of the Reformation. … [this book] is more than one dared ask for. … How teachers will rejoice in this wonderfully useful book.” Teaching History

“Vigorous, brisk, and highly stimulating. The reader will be thoroughly engaged from the outset, and considerably enlightened at the end.” John Platt, Pembroke College, University of Oxford

“Highly recommended.” Choice

“A remarkably fine introduction to the study of the Reformation and its theological ideas; it is exceptionally well thought out, fully up to date in its scholarship, fair in its presentation, and simply pellucid in its explanations. Highly recommended.” ADRIS

Also by Alister E. McGrath from Wiley-Blackwell

Historical Theology: An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought, Second Edition (2012)

Reformation Thought: An Introduction, Fourth Edition (2012)

Theology: The Basic Readings, Second Edition (edited, 2012)

Theology: The Basics, Third Edition (2012)

Luther’s Theology of the Cross: Martin Luther’s Theological Breakthrough, Second Edition (2011)

Darwinism and the Divine: Evolutionary Thought and Natural Theology (2011)

The Christian Theology Reader, Fourth Edition (edited, 2011)

Christian Theology: An Introduction, Fifth Edition (2011)

Science and Religion: A New Introduction, Second Edition (2009)

The Open Secret: A New Vision for Natural Theology (2008)

The Order of Things: Explorations in Scientific Theology (2006)

Christianity: An Introduction, Second Edition (2006)

Dawkins’ God: Genes, Memes, and the Meaning of Life (2004)

The Intellectual Origins of the European Reformation, Second Edition (2003)

Christian Literature: An Anthology (edited, 2003)

A Brief History of Heaven (2003)

The Blackwell Companion to Protestantism (edited with Darren C. Marks, 2003)

The Future of Christianity (2002)

Christian Spirituality: An Introduction (1999)

The Foundations of Dialogue in Science and Religion (1998)

The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Thought (edited, 1995)

A Life of John Calvin (1990)

Reformation Thought

An Introduction

Fourth Edition

Alister E. McGrath

This fourth edition first published 2012

© 2012 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Edition history: Blackwell Publishers Ltd (1e, 1988; 2e, 1993 and 3e, 1999)

Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing.

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

McGrath, Alister E., 1953-

Reformation thought : an introduction / Alister E. McGrath. – 4th ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-67283-9 (hardback) – ISBN 978-0-470-67281-5 (paperback)

1. Theology, Doctrinal–History–16th century. 2. Reformation. I. Title.

BT26.M37 2012

270.6–dc23

2011046042

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDFs ISBN: 9781444354850; Wiley Online Library ISBN: 9781444354881; ePub ISBN: 9781444354867; Mobi ISBN: 9781444354874

List of Figures

1.1 The Council of Trent, 4 December 1563

1.2 Erasmus of Rotterdam in the print shop of his friend Johannes Froben of Basle

2.1 Palace and Bridge at Avignon

3.1 A scene from the medieval University of Padua

3.2 Erasmus von Rotterdam

4.1 Thomas Aquinas

4.2 Seal of the University of Paris, fourteenth century

5.1 Martin Luther

5.2 Ulrich Zwingli

5.3 John Calvin

6.1 The four-horse chariot (Latin: Quadriga) on the Brandenburg Gate, Unter den Linden, Berlin

6.2 Title page of William Tyndale’s New Testament, printed in the 1530s

7.1 The Pope’s selling of indulgences by Lucas Cranach the Elder

7.2 View of Zurich, from Cosmographie Universelle by Sebastien Munster

8.1 Saint Augustine of Hippo

8.2 Menno Simons

9.1 Chalice of S. Gauzelin, tenth century, Nancy cathedral

9.2 Baptism of Charles VI of France in Saint-Paul in Paris, December 6, 1368

10.1 Double portrait of Martin Luther (1483–1546) (left) and Philip Melanchthon (1497–1560), by Lucas Cranach the Younger

11.1 German Peasants’ War (1524–26), armed peasants

12.1 Henry VIII, King of England (1509–47), portrait, 1536, by Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543)

12.2 Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I, the Drewe Portrait, late 1580s

13.1 Title page of the first edition of John Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion, published at Basle in 1536

14.1 Detail of fruit and grain merchants, from De Sphaera, c.1470

14.2 Max Weber

Preface to the Fourth Edition

The European Reformation of the sixteenth century is one of the most fascinating areas of study available to the historian. It also continues to be of central importance to anyone interested in the history of the Christian church or its religious ideas. The Reformation embraced a number of quite distinct, yet overlapping, areas of human activity: the reform of both the morals and structures of church and society, new approaches to political issues, shifts in economic thinking, the renewal of Christian spirituality, and the reform of Christian doctrine. It was a movement based upon a more or less coherent set of ideas, which were believed to be capable of functioning as the foundation of a program of reform.

But what were those ideas? How may their origins be accounted for? And how were they modified by the social conditions of the period? One serious difficulty – indeed, perhaps the most serious difficulty – facing today’s historian of the sixteenth-century Reformation is the strangeness of the ideas underlying it. The term “theology” has been used by Christians since the third century to mean “talking about God.” The word can be used to refer to both the core ideas of the Christian faith, and the academic discipline which reflects on these ideas.

Many modern students of the Reformation know little about Christian theology. For example, the great theological slogan “justification by faith alone” seems incomprehensible to many students of this era, as do the intricacies of the sixteenth-century debates over the Eucharist. Why should these apparently obscure issues have caused such a storm at the time? There is an obvious temptation for the student of the Reformation to avoid engaging with the ideas of the movement and to treat it as a purely social phenomenon.

This book is written in the conviction that there are many who will not be prepared to rest content with this superficial engagement with the ideas of the Reformation, and wish to deal with them seriously – but who are discouraged from doing so by the formidable difficulties encountered in trying to understand its ideas. Christian theology will always hold a place of importance in the study of the Reformation. To fail to have at least some degree of familiarity with theology is to lack an understanding of the culture and self-consciousness of the Reformation era. Religious ideas played a large part in the development and expansion of the Reformation. To study the Reformation without considering the religious ideas that fueled its development is comparable to studying the Russian Revolution without reference to Marxism. Historians cannot cut themselves off from the language and ideas of their era of study.

A further difficulty placed in the path of such a student is the remarkable advance made within the last generation in our understanding both of the Reformation itself, and of its background in the late Renaissance, particularly in relation to late medieval scholasticism. Some of this work has yet to filter through to the student, and there is a pressing need for a work which will explain the findings of recent scholarship, and indicate its importance for our understanding of the Reformation during the sixteenth century.

The present work aims to do just that. It assumes that the reader knows nothing of Christian theology, and aims to provide an entry-level guide to the ideas that proved to be so central to this movement in European history, while at the same time distilling the findings of much recent scholarship in its field. The book arose from many years’ experience of teaching the field of Reformation studies to students at Oxford University, and I wish to acknowledge my complete indebtedness to those students. It is they who have taught me just how much about the Reformation, so often taken for granted, actually needs to be explained. It is they who have identified the points of particular difficulty which need special discussion. It is they who have recognized the need for precisely this work – and if the reader finds it helpful, it is those students who must be thanked. I am also grateful to my colleagues from the Oxford University faculties of theology and history for many helpful discussions concerning the difficulties encountered in teaching Reformation thought in the twenty-first century.

This book first appeared in 1988. It was immediately clear that it had met a real educational need. An expanded and revised second edition appeared in 1993. The third edition of 1999 offered substantially increased biographical coverage of major Reformation thinkers, and extended its coverage to include the thought of the English Reformation.

This new edition retains all the features which made those earlier editions so attractive to students, while incorporating additional material of direct relevance. In addition to general updating as necessary, reflecting scholarly developments since the last edition, the new edition has been reorganized to make it easier to use. The entire work has been revised to ensure that it is as accessible and useful as possible.

While some reviewers have suggested that the work would be improved if its scope were to be expanded to include seventeenth-century developments, most have asked that it retain its present focus on the sixteenth century. This wish – which makes good pedagogical sense – has been respected.

Alister McGrath
London, December 2011

How to Use This Book

Three words sum up the aim of this book: introduce; explain; contextualize. The book aims to introduce the leading ideas of the European Reformation during the first half of the sixteenth century. It is like a sketch map, which indicates the main features of the intellectual landscape: notes and suggestions for further reading will allow the reader to add finer detail later. Second, the book aims to explain these ideas. It assumes that the reader knows nothing about the Christian theology which underlies the Reformation, and explains what terms such as “justification by faith” and “predestination” mean, and why they are of religious and social relevance. Third, it aims to contextualize these ideas by setting them in their proper intellectual, social, and political context. That context includes such great intellectual movements as humanism and scholasticism, the alternative religious ideologies of the radical Reformation and Catholicism, and the political and social realities of the imperial cities of the early sixteenth century. All these factors affected the thought of the reformers and its impact upon their public – and this work aims to identify that influence and assess its effects.

A series of appendices deal with difficulties which experience suggests most students encounter as they read works relating to the Reformation. What do these abbreviations mean? How can I make sense of those references to primary and secondary sources? What does “Pelagian” mean? Where should I go to find out more about the Reformation? These questions and others are dealt with at length, making this book unique. It will be assumed that the reader speaks no language other than English, and all Latin quotations or slogans will be translated and explained. Although the text of the work draws extensively upon foreign language scholarship, unavailable in English, a select bibliography of works available in English is provided for the benefit of such readers.

On Notes and Further Reading

Notes are kept to a minimum, and are limited to identifying the source of extended quotations or scholarly studies explicitly identified in the text. For abbreviations and forms of reference to primary sources, see Appendices 3 and 4.

The best reference resource currently available relating to the thought of the Reformation is H. J. Hillerbrand, ed., The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Reformation (4 vols; Oxford, 1996). This is an essential resource for anybody concerned with any aspect of the Reformation, and includes substantial bibliographies.

The bibliographies to be found at the end of each chapter do not aim to be exhaustive; their task is to identify potentially valuable studies in the English language, in order to allow readers of this work to take the topics of each chapter further.

Map

Centers of theological and ecclesiastical activity at the time of the European Reformation

1
The Reformation: An Introduction

Many students approach the Reformation in much the same way as medieval travelers approached the vast dark forests of southern Germany – with a sense of hesitation and anxiety, in case what lay ahead should prove impenetrable, or in case they should find themselves hopelessly lost. They are often like explorers venturing into new terrain, unsure what there is to find, at times bewildered by the unmapped wilderness, at others exhilarated by unexpected vistas and valleys. Many find themselves longing for a guide who will lead them through what sometimes seems like a dense jungle.

It is tempting for such students to ignore the ideas of the Reformation altogether in order to concentrate upon its social or political aspects. The price of making the Reformation easier to come to grips with in this way, however, is to fail both to capture its essence as a historical phenomenon and to understand why it remains such an essential reference point for much contemporary debate in the religious world and far beyond.

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!