Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Contributors

Abbreviations

Notation

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Preface: Wind Power Myths Debunked

2.1 Can Grid Operators Deal with the Variability of Wind Power?

2.2 Does Wind Power Require Back-up Generation?

2.3 Aren't More CO2 Emissions Generated with Wind Power in Power Systems than Without, Due to Back-up Requirements?

2.4 Does Wind Power Require Storage?2

2.5 Isn't the Existing Flexibility Already Fully Utilized?

2.6 How Often Does the Wind Stop Blowing Everywhere at the Same Time?

2.7 To What Extent can Wind Power Production be Predicted?7

2.8 Is it Expensive to Integrate Wind?

2.9 Doesn't Wind Power Production Require New Transmission, and won't that Make Wind Expensive?10

2.10 Does Wind Power have Capacity Credit?

2.11 Don't Wind Power Plants have Low Capacity Factors?

2.12 Is Wind Power Generation Cost-competitive with Coal or Nuclear?

2.13 Is there a Limit to How Much Wind Generation Capacity can be Accommodated by the Grid?

2.14 Summary

Acknowledgment

References

Part A : Theoretical Background

Chapter 3: Historical Development and Current Status of Wind Power

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Historical Background

3.3 Current Status of Wind Power Worldwide

3.4 Status of Wind Turbine Technology

3.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 4: Wind Power in Power Systems: An Introduction

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Power System History

4.3 Current Status of Wind Power in Power Systems

4.4 Network Integration Issues for Wind Power

4.5 Basic Electrical Engineering

4.6 Characteristics of Wind Power Generation

4.7 Basic Integration Issues Related to Wind Power

4.8 Conclusions

AppendixMechanical Equivalent to Power System Operation with Wind Power

A.1 Introduction

A.2 Active Power Balance

A.3 Synchronous Machines

A.4 Asynchronous Machines

A.5 Power Electronic Interfaces

A.6 Frequency Control

A.7 Wind Power

A.8 Reactive Power Balance

A.9 Asynchronous Machines

A.10 Capacitors

A.11 Synchronous Machines

A.12 Power Electronic Interfaces

References

Chapter 5: Generators and Power Electronics for Wind Turbines

5.1 Introduction

5.2 State-of-the-Art Technologies

5.3 Generator Concepts

5.4 Power Electronic Concepts

5.5 Power Electronic Solutions in Wind Farms

5.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 6: Power System Impacts of Wind Power

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Operation of the Power System

6.3 Wind Power Production and the Power System

6.4 Effects of Wind Energy on the Power System

6.5 Conclusions

References

Chapter 7: The Value of Wind Power

7.1 Introduction

7.2 The Value of a Power Plant

7.3 The Value of Wind Power

7.4 The Market Value of Wind Power

7.5 Conclusions

References

Part B : Technical Regulations and Grid Code Validation

Chapter 8: Power Quality Standards for Wind Turbines

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Power Quality Characteristics of Wind Turbines

8.3 Impact on Voltage Quality

8.4 Discussion

8.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 9: Measurement of Electrical Characteristics

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Power Quality Measurement Procedures

9.3 Specification

9.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 10: Practical Experience with Power Quality and Wind Power

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Voltage Variations

10.3 Flicker

10.4 Harmonics

10.5 Transients

10.6 Frequency

10.7 Conclusions

References

Chapter 11: Technical Regulations for the Interconnection of Wind Power Plants to the Power System

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Overview of Technical Regulations

11.3 Comparison of Technical Interconnection Regulations

11.4 New Interconnection Requirements at Wind Plant Level

11.5 Interconnection Practice

11.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 12: Performance Validation and Certification for Grid Codes

12.1 Introduction

12.2 History of the Certification Process

12.3 Steps of the Unit Certification Process

12.4 Steps in the Plant Certification Process

12.5 Experience with the Certification Process in Germany

12.6 Performance Validation in Canada and Spain

12.7 Conclusions

References

Part C : Wind Power Plant and Transmission Issues

Chapter 13: Electrical Design of a Wind Power Plant

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Wind Plant Collection System Design Objectives

13.3 Wind Plant Performance Requirements

13.4 Economic Evaluation Factors

13.5 Collection System Electrical Design

13.6 Plant Control and Communication

References

Chapter 14: Transmission Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants and Operation Planning Strategies for Offshore Power Systems

14.1 Introduction

14.2 General Electrical Aspects

14.3 Transmission System to Shore

14.4 From a Cluster Approach to Offshore Transmission Grid: The Kriegers Flak Project

14.5 Offshore Grid Systems

14.6 New System Solutions for Offshore Wind Power Plants

14.7 Alternative Transmission Solutions

14.8 Conclusions

References

Chapter 15: New Cable Systems for Offshore Wind Power Plants

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Technical Background

15.3 Power Transmission with Bipolar HVAC Cable Systems

15.4 Voltage Definitions and Transformer Groups

15.5 Submarine Cable Connections

15.6 Examples

15.7 HVAC Bipolar Land Cable Systems

15.8 Summary

References

Chapter 16: New Control Concept for Offshore Wind Power Plants: Constant-Speed Turbines on a Grid with Variable Frequency

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Model

16.3 Power Limitation

16.4 The Park-Variable Concept

16.5 Calculating the Energy Yield

16.6 Results

16.7 Conclusion

References

Part D : International Studies

Chapter 17: Overview of Integration Studies – Methodologies and Results

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Wind Integration Study Set-up and Penetration Level of Wind Power

17.3 Methodologies for Wind Integration Studies

17.4 Results from Integration Studies

17.5 Recommendations

17.6 Conclusions and Future Work

References

Chapter 18: Two Reference Studies on European Transmission for Wind Integration: TradeWind and EWIS

18.1 Introduction

18.2 TradeWind

18.3 The European Wind Integration Study EWIS

18.4 Future Transmission Needs in Europe from the Studies

18.5 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 19: Transmission Planning for Wind Energy in the USA: Status and Prospects

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Transmission Planning for Energy Resources

19.3 Regional Planning Efforts: Status and Prospects

19.4 National Transmission Policy

19.5 Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 20: Wind Power in Areas with Limited Transmission Capacity

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Transmission Limits

20.3 Transmission Capacity: Methods of Determination

20.4 Measures to Increase Transmission Capacity

20.5 Impact of Wind Generation on Available Transmission Capacity

20.6 Alternatives to Grid Reinforcement for the Integration of Wind Power

20.7 Conclusions

References

Chapter 21: Wind Power and Storage

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Storage Technologies

21.3 Storage for Wind Integration

21.4 Studies on Operation of Storage in Systems with High Wind Penetration

21.5 Discussion

21.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 22: Economic Aspects of Wind Power in Power Systems

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Costs for Network Connection and Network Upgrading

22.3 System Operation Costs in a Deregulated Market

22.4 Example of Nord Pool

22.5 Conclusions

References

Part E : Power System Integration Experience

Chapter 23: Wind Power in the Danish Power System

23.1 Introduction

23.2 System Overview

23.3 Balancing Wind Power in Daily Operation

23.4 System Analysis and Modelling Issues

23.5 Conclusions and Lessons Learned

References

Chapter 24: Wind Power in the German Network: Present Status and Future Challenges of Maintaining Quality of Supply

24.1 Overview

24.2 Wind Power Integration in Germany

24.3 Wind Power Flow Patterns and Reliable System Operation

24.4 Network Planning and Network Security Issues

24.5 System Performance and System Compliance

24.6 Requirements to Ensure System Security

24.7 Summary: Wind Power in the German Network

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 25: Wind Integration in Portugal

25.1 Introduction

25.2 The Portuguese Power System

25.3 Planning the Power System for High Wind Penetration

25.4 Power System Studies for a Secure Integration of Wind Generation

25.5 Operational Experience of Extreme Penetration of Wind Power in Portugal

25.6 Synthesis

References

Chapter 26: Wind Power Integration Experience in Spain

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Wind Capacity in Spain

26.3 Network Arrangements for Wind Power Development

26.4 Technical Requirements for Massive Wind Power Integration

26.5 Market Arrangements for Wind Power Integration

26.6 Operational Arrangements for Wind Power Integration

26.7 Future Challenges Associated with Wind Power Integration

26.8 Conclusions and Lessons Learned

References

Chapter 27: Maximizing Renewable Generation on the Power System of Ireland and Northern Ireland

27.1 Introduction

27.2 The Ireland and Northern Ireland Power System

27.3 Deregulation and the First European Energy Package

27.4 The Development of Renewable Policy 2020 Targets and Beyond

27.5 Operational Studies

27.6 Impact on the Operation of the Power System

27.7 Programme for a Secure, Sustainable Power System

27.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 28: Wind Power in the Power System in Texas

28.1 Overview

28.2 Wind Development in Texas

28.3 Wind Integration Issues

28.4 Market Impacts

28.5 Lessons Learned

28.6 Next Steps

Chapter 29: Wind Power in the New Zealand Power System

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Overview of the New Zealand Power System

29.3 Overview of Wind Power Installations in New Zealand

29.4 Technology Progression

29.5 Case Study: West Wind Wind Farm

29.6 Case Study: White Hill Wind Farm

29.7 Future Challenges and the Next Steps

29.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 30: Large-Scale Wind Power Integration into the Chinese Power System

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Grid Integration Impact of High Wind Power Penetration

30.3 Solutions for the Grid Integration of Large-scale Wind Power

30.4 Grid Compliance Testing Technology

30.5 Smart Grid and Wind Power in China

30.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 31: Isolated Systems with Wind Power

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Isolated Power Systems

31.3 Detailed Overview of Wind–Diesel Power Systems

31.4 Systems and Experience

31.5 Wind Power Impact on Power Quality

31.6 System Modelling Requirements

31.7 Issues During the Application of Wind–Diesel Systems

31.8 Conclusions and Recommendations

References

Chapter 32: Wind Farms in Weak Power Networks in India

32.1 Introduction

32.2 Network Characteristics

32.3 Wind Turbine Characteristics

32.4 Wind Turbine Influence on Grids

32.5 Grid Influence on Wind Turbines

32.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 33: Wind Power Prediction

33.1 Introduction

33.2 Forecast Horizons

33.3 Principle of Wind Power Prediction Tools

33.4 Day-Ahead Prediction

33.5 Ensemble Forecast Models/Combination of Forecast Models

33.6 Nowcasting and Ramp Forecasting

33.7 Forecast Error Evaluation

33.8 Lessons Learned during Recent Years

33.9 Future Challenges

References

Part F : Dynamic Modelling of Wind Turbines for Power System Studies

Chapter 34: Introduction to the Modelling of Wind Turbines

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Basic Considerations Regarding Modelling and Simulations

34.3 Overview of Aerodynamic Modelling

34.4 Basic Modelling Block Description of Wind Turbines

34.5 Per Unit Systems and Data for the Mechanical System

34.6 Different Types of Simulations and Requirements for Accuracy

34.7 Conclusions

References

Chapter 35: A Generic Wind Power Plant Model

35.1 Introduction

35.2 Power Flow Representation and Equivalencing

35.3 WECC Generic Dynamic Models

35.4 Generic Model Validation

35.5 Known Issues and Areas of Improvement

35.6 Outlook

References

Chapter 36: Reduced-Order Modelling of Wind Turbines

36.1 Introduction

36.2 Power System Dynamics Simulation

36.3 Current Wind Turbine Types

36.4 Modelling Assumptions

36.5 Model of a Constant-Speed Wind Turbine

36.6 Model of a Wind Turbine with a Doubly Fed Induction Generator

36.7 Model of a Wind Turbine with a Synchronous Generator

36.8 Model Response

36.9 Conclusions

References

Chapter 37: High-Order Models of Doubly Fed Induction Generators

37.1 Introduction

37.2 Advantages of Using a Doubly Fed Induction Generator

37.3 The Components of a Doubly Fed Induction Generator

37.4 Machine Equations

37.5 Voltage-Source Converter

37.6 Sequencer

37.7 Simulation of the Doubly Fed Induction Generator

37.8 Reducing the Order of the Doubly Fed Induction Generator

37.9 Conclusions

References

Chapter 38: Full-Scale Verification of Dynamic Wind Turbine Models

38.1 Introduction

38.2 General Validation Procedure

38.3 Measured Parameters and Conversion

38.4 Validation Types

38.5 Further Validation Specifications

38.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 39: Impacts of Wind Power on Power System Stability

39.1 Power System Stability and Security

39.2 Rotor Angle Stability

39.3 Voltage Stability

39.4 Frequency Stability

39.5 Dynamic Behaviour of Wind Power Plants

39.6 Conclusions

References

Chapter 40: Modelling of Large Wind Power Plants

40.1 Introduction

40.2 Detailed Modelling and Short-Term Stability

40.3 Aggregated Modelling and Fault Ride-Through

40.4 Wind Power Plant Controllers

40.5 Conclusions

References

Part G : Future Issues

Chapter 41: Benefits of Active Management of Distribution Systems

41.1 Background

41.2 Active Management

41.3 Quantifying the Benefits of Active Management

41.4 Conclusions

References

Chapter 42: Wind Power and the Smart Grid

42.1 Introduction

42.2 (Trying to) Define Smart Grids

42.3 Why ‘Smarten’ the Grid? And Why Now (or Why Not)?

42.4 Goals and Concepts

42.5 Wind Power and Smart Grids

42.6 Practical Application: The Danish Cell Controller Pilot Project

42.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 43: Reactive Power Capability and Voltage Control with Wind Turbines

43.1 Relevance and Design Paradigm

43.2 Reactive Power Capability of a Wind Turbine

43.3 Model-Based Design of Voltage Control Systems for Wind Power Plants

43.4 Performance Demonstration, Model Validation and Contingency Tests

43.5 Voltage Control of Medium-Voltage Network

Reference

Chapter 44: Hydrogen as a Means of Transporting and Balancing Wind Power Production

44.1 Introduction

44.2 A Brief Introduction to Hydrogen

44.3 Technology and Efficiency

44.4 Reconversion to Electricity: Fuel Cells

44.5 The Potential of Hydrogen in Wind Energy Storage

44.6 Hydrogen Applications for Wind Energy Storage

44.7 A Blueprint for a Hydrogen Distribution System

44.8 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Color Plate

Index

Notation

English Symbols

A | No-load loss economic evaluation factor; the incremental investment that yields the target rate of economnic return, if the no-load loss is reduced by 1 kW.
Ar | area swept by rotor blades
B | bundled arrangement of bipolar cables
B | Load-loss economic evaluation factor; the incremental investment that yields the target rate of economnic return, if the load loss is reduced by 1 kW.
Bi | magnetic induction at a height of i m, measured from ground level
C | the shunt capacitance of the line
C | Unavailability economic evaluation factor; the incremental investment that yields the target rate of economnic return by reducing the expected undelivered energy by 1 kWh/year.
cp | power coefficient
CP | power efficiency coefficient of the wind turbine
D | delta connection of transformer windings, delta (trefoil) formation of three-phase cables
D | shaft damping constant [pu torque/(rad/s)]
D(n) | Tax depreciation of a capital asset in year n
dVtip | speed of the blade tip
E | flat formation of three-core cables
ffree–fixed | eigenfrequency of a free-fixed shaft system
ffree–free | eigenfrequency of a free-free shaft system
fN | power frequency, for instance 50 Hz
fs | system frequency
FX(x) | distribution function for variable X
fX(x) | probability mass function for variable X
G | clearance between cables, total cable trench width
Hg | inertia constant of the induction generator
Hgen | generator rotor inertia time constant
Hm | generator inertia constant
Ht | turbine inertia constant
Hturb | wind turbine inertia time constant
Ibase | base current, peak phase current
IG | grid current
i | Desired after-tax rate of return
in | harmonic current of order n
in,k | harmonic current of order n from source k
ir | rotor current
| rotor current in the rotor reference frame
| stator current in the rotor reference frame
| stator current in the stator reference frame
is | stator current
j | imaginary unit
Jgen | generator rotor inertia
Jturb | wind turbine inertia
K | shaft torsion constant [pu torque/rad]
kbase | shaft stiffness base value
KHS | high-speed shaft stiffness
kHS | pu high-speed shaft stiffness
kloss | Loss factor; ratio of average losses divided by the losses at rated wind plant production
KLS | low-speed shaft stiffness
kLS | pu low-speed shaft stiffness
Ks | shaft stiffness
kspill | spilled wind energy as percentage of wind energy production
ktot | total pu shaft stiffness
L | the inductance of the line
l | transmission line length
Lfd | field inductance
Li | denomination of a voltage phase i
Llr | rotor leakage inductance
Lls | stator leakage inductance
Lm | mutual inductance
N | the number of WTGs
ngear | gear ratio
npp | number of pole pairs
P | Property tax rate
P | active power
P′ | power losses per length
p | air pressure; number of poles
P₆₀₀ | maximum active power of wind turbine measured as a 600 s average value
Pbase | power base value
Pc | active converter power
PG | grid electric active power
PMECH | mechanical power of the wind turbine
Po | natural load of the line
PR | active power at the receiving end of the line
Pr | active rotor power
PREF | generator electric active power reference
Ps | Active stator power
| Per-unit power output of the wind plant at hour t
Pw | power in the wind
PWIND | total power of the wind within the rotor swept area of the wind turbine
P(X = x) | probability that variable X is equal to x
Q | reactive power
Qc | reactive converter power
QG | grid electric reactive power
QR | reactive power at the receiving end of the line
Qr | reactive rotor power
QREF | generator electric reactive power reference
Qs | reactive stator power
R | rotor radius
Rfd | field resistance
Rgas | gas constant
RL | line resistance
Rr | rotor resistance
rr | the rotor winding resistance
Rs | stator resistance
rs | stator winding resistance
S | string of bipolar cables
| any space vector
Sa(t) | instantaneous (momentary) value of a quantity for phase a
Sb(t) | instantaneous (momentary) value of a quantity for phase b
Sbase | three-phase base power
Sc(t) | instantaneous (momentary) value of a quantity for phase c
Sd, Sd(t) | direct-axis of a space vector
sges | clearance between cables, total cable trench width
SN | nominal three-phase power of an induction generator
Sq, Sq(t) | quadrature-axis of a space vector
| space vector referred to the rotor reference frame
Srotor,a | instantaneous (momentary) value of a quantity for phase a in rotor reference frame
Srotor,q | imaginary part of
Srotor,b | instantaneous (momentary) value of a quantity for phase b in rotor reference frame
Srotor,c | instantaneous (momentary) value of a quantity for phase c in rotor reference frame
Srotor,d | real part of
| space vector referred to the stator reference frame
Sstator,d | real part of
Sstator,q | imaginary part of
t | time
T | Income tax rate
t°C | temperature
Tbase | torque base value
Tdamping | damping torque of the shaft
Te | electrical torque
Tel | electrical air gap torque of the generator; electrical torque produced by the induction generator
Th | time period
Tm | mechanical torque; mechanical torque produced by the wind turbine
TMECH | mechanical torque of the wind turbine
Tshaft | incoming torque from the shaft connecting the induction generator with the wind turbine
Ttorsion | elasticity torque of the shaft
U | voltage
u∗ | friction velocity
U₀ | phase-to-ground voltage
Ubase | base voltage, peak phase voltage
ULL,i | phase-to-phase voltage in a voltage system with i phases
UN | rms-value of the phase-to-phase voltage of a machine
UR | voltage at the receiving end
ur | rotor voltage
| rotor voltage in the rotor reference frame
| stator voltage in the rotor reference frame
UREF | generator stator voltage reference
US | grid voltage; voltage at the sending end
us | stator voltage
| stator voltage in the stator reference frame
Ut | terminal voltage
Vrel | relative wind speed
VWIND | wind speed
XL | line reactance
xlr | leakage reactance of the rotor
xls | leakage reactance of the stator
xm | mutual reactance between the stator and rotor windings
xr | rotor self-reactance which is equal to
xs | stator self-reactance
Y | wye connection of transformer windings
Ye | lumped admittance of long transmission line
z | height of wind turbine
Z | impedance
z₀ | roughness length
Zc | transmission line surge impedance
Ze | lumped impedance of long transmission line
ZL | line impedance
ZLD | load impedance

Greek Symbols

α | exponent
β | pitch angle
βref | pitch reference angle
dβ/dt | pitch speed
γ | angular displacement between shaft ends
η | gear ratio
θ | pitch angle; angular difference between two terminal voltages
θbase | angle base value
θg | machine angle
θgen | generator rotor angle
θL | arctan(XL/RL)
θm | angle of the wind turbine
λ | tip speed ratio
ν | wind speed
νavg | average wind speed
ρ | air density
ρAIR | air density (typically 1.225 kg/m³)
σ | total leakage factor
ϕ | angle of incidence
ϕG | grid voltage phase angle
ϕi | phase shift of voltage i
ϕLD | load angle
cos ϕLD | load power factor
ψbase | base flux
ψfd | field flux linkage
ψpm | permanent-magnet flux linkage
ψr | rotor flux linkage
| direct-axis of the rotor flux in rotor reference frame
| direct-axis of the stator flux in rotor reference frame
| quadrature-axis of the rotor flux in rotor reference frame
| quadrature-axis of the stator flux in rotor reference frame
| rotor flux in the rotor reference frame
| stator flux in the rotor reference frame
ψs | stator flux linkage
| stator flux in the stator reference frame
ω | angular speed
ωbase | rotational speed base value; base angular speed
ωg | speed of the machine (induction generator)
ωgen | generator rotor rotational speed
ωm | generator speed; angular speed of the wind turbine
ωN = 2πfN | angular speed, for instance 2π × 50 [rad/s]
ωt | turbine speed
ωturb | turbine rotational speed

Subscripts/Indices

el. | electrical system
gen. | generator
HS | high-speed shaft
LS | low-speed shaft
turb. | turbine

This edition first published 2012

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Wind power in power systems / edited by Thomas Ackermann. — 2nd ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-97416-2 (hardback)

1. Wind power plants. 2. Wind power. I. Ackermann, Thomas.

TK1541.W558 2012

621.31'2136—dc23

2011050039

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Print ISBN: 9780470974162

To Moana, Jonas and Nora

Contributors

Thomas Ackermann (T.Ackermann@energynautics.com) is the CEO and founding partner of Energynautics, a German-based research and consulting company in the area of sustainable energy supply and power systems. He has worked in the wind energy and power system industry in Germany, Sweden, China, USA, New Zealand, Australia, Denmark and India. He is also lecturer at the Royal University of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm, Sweden as well as at the Technical University in Darmstadt (TUD), Germany. He is also the main organizer of the annual wind and solar integration workshop (http://www.windintegrationworkshop.org/). Furthermore, he is also involved in various lectures for the power system industry as well as for developing countries in the area of integration of renewable into power systems. He has the degree of a Diplom Wirtschaftsingenieur (MSc in mechanical engineering combined with an MBA) from the Technical University Berlin, Germany, an MSc in Physics from Dunedin University, New Zealand, and a PhD from the Royal University of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden.

(a) 400 kV cable links in Berlin, one with forced cooling, the other links in deep tunnels with natural cooling and with forced convection cooling; (b) 400 kV XLPE cable links in Vienna with rating problems of cables and joints as well as EMF problems; (c) 220 kV cable link with extreme EMC requirements in Lübeck, as well as multiple grid connection projects of offshore windfarms.

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