Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Chapter 1: Introduction to Life Cycle Assessment

References from the LCA Handbook

Aims of the Chapter

1.1 Purpose of the Student Handbook

1.2 Why LCA?

1.3 Evolution of Environmental toward Life Cycle Thinking

1.4 Examples of Environmental Impact Trade-Offs

1.5 LCA Methodology

1.6 Maintaining Transparency (Openness)

1.7 Conclusions

References

Chapter 1 Exercises

Chapter 2: Goal and Scope Definition in Life Cycle Assessment

References from the LCA Handbook

Aims of the Chapter

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Components of a Well-Defined Study

2.3 Consequential LCA

2.4 Carbon Footprint versus LCA

2.5 Creating a Goal Statement

2.6 Preparing a Goal and Scope Document

References

Appendix: Hypothetical Example of a Comparative, Attributional Life Cycle Assessment to Support Government Decision Making

Chapter 2 Exercises

Chapter 3: Life Cycle Inventory

References from the LCA Handbook

Aims of the Chapter

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Modeling Inputs and Outputs

3.3 Methodology Issues

3.4 Data Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis

3.5 Databases and Data Sources

3.6 Collecting LCI Data

3.7 Reporting Life Cycle Inventory

3.8 Life Cycle Inventory Data Quality

3.9 Economic Input/Output (EIO) Data

3.10 Consequential LCA

3.11 LCA Software

References

Chapter 3 Exercises

Chapter 4: Life Cycle Impact Assessment

References from the LCA Handbook

Aims of the Chapter

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Choice of Impact Models and Categories

4.3 Current LCIA Approaches

4.4 The Agri-Food Sector

4.5 LCIA Models and Tools

References

Annex: Available Midpoint and Endpoint Characterization Methodologies

Chapter 4 Exercises

Chapter 5: Normalization, Grouping and Weighting in Life Cycle Assessment

References from the LCA Handbook

Aims of the chapter

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Current Practice of Normalization and Weighting in LCIA

5.3 Principles of External Normalization

5.4 Issues with External Normalization

5.5 Inherent Data Gaps

5.6 Masking Salient Aspects

5.7 Compensation

5.8 Spatial Boundaries and Time Frames

5.9 Divergence in Databases

5.10 Principles of Internal Normalization

5.11 Compensatory Methods

5.12 Partially Compensatory Methods

5.13 Weighting

5.14 Multi-Criteria Decision Making

References

Appendix

Chapter 5 Exercises

Chapter 6: Life Cycle Assessment: Interpretation and Reporting

References from the LCA Handbook

Aims of the Chapter

6.1 Introduction

6.2 LCA Interpretation according to ISO

6.3 Uncertainty and Sensitivity Analysis

6.4 Contribution Analysis

6.5 Presenting LCIA Results

6.6 Preparing the Final Report

6.7 The Review Process

6.8 Product Category Rules and Environmental Product Declarations

References

Chapter 6 Exercises

Chapter 7: Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment

References from the LCA Handbook

Aims of the Chapter

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Life Cycle Assessment and Sustainability

7.3 A Framework for LCSA

7.4 Social Responsibility

7.5 Research Needs for LCSA Methodology

References

Chapter 7 Exercises

Chapter 8: Resources for Conducting Life Cycle Assessment

Books

Organizations

LCA Centers and Societies¹

Glossary

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1: ISO Documents on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA).

Chapter 2

Table 2.1: Performance Characteristics of LED, Incandescent and CFL Light Bulbs.

Chapter 3

Table 3.1: Example of Unit Process Specification for an Aluminum Production Plant.

Table 3.2: Available National Life Cycle Inventory Databases and Industry Organizations’ Databases (updated Curran and Notten 2006).

Table 3.3: Semi-Quantitative Approach to Assessing Data Quality (Weidema and Wesnaes 1996).

Table 3.4: LCA Digital Commons Flow Data Quality Scoring Criteria (Cooper and Kahn 2012).

Table 3.5: Simplified Economic Input/Output Data Available from the US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis (http://www.bea.gov/industry) $M.

Table 3.6: European Commission’s Joint Research Centre (JRC) List of Tools. http://eplca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ResourceDirectory/toolList.vm (accessed 29 January 2015).

Chapter 4

Table 4.1: Common Impact Categories with Example Midpoint and Endpoint Indicators.

Table 4.2: Equivalency Factors for Ozone Depletion Potential (Wenzel et al 1997).

Table 4.3: Equivalency Factors for Global Warming (Wenzel et al 1997).

Table 4.4: Units of Measure for Resource Indicators.

Table 4.5: Calculating Acidification “Emission Loading” (SCS 2010).

Table 4.6: Equivalency Factors for Acidifiers (Wenzel et al 1997).

Table 4.7: Common Life Cycle Impact Assessment Tools Sorted by Impact Category Indicator.

Table A.1: Detailed Midpoint Characterization Methodologies (updated by R. Rosenbaum) (JRC 2010, 2011)

Table A.2: Detailed Endpoint Characterization Methodologies (updated by R. Rosenbaum) (JRC 2010, 2011)

Chapter 6

Table 6.1: Hypothetical Tornado Diagram Worksheet for Product X (EPA 1995).

Table 6.2: Contribution Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Contributing to Climate Change.

Table 6.3: Analysis of LCI results identifies the inputs and outputs that contribute the most to the processes or life cycle stages (ISO 2000).

Chapter 7

Table 7.1: Dimensions of Questions for Sustainability (adapted from Heijungs et al 2007; Guinée et al 2009).

Table 7.2: Subcategories Mapped to Impact Categories for Use in Social LCA.

Table 7.3: Social Responsibility (SR) Instruments, References and Methods Relevant for Each Phase of SLCA.

Table 7.4: Uses of the Social Hotspots Database.

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1: The boundaries of a pollution prevention (cleaner production) assessment are typically drawn around a single facility (dotted lines) omitting activities that may occur elsewhere in the product system.

Figure 1.2: The Six Blind Men and the Elephant.

Figure 1.3: Dueling diaper (nappy) LCA studies raised awareness of the diversity of environmental impacts that products can create.

Figure 1.4: Disposable Diaper (Nappy) Life Cycle.

Figure 1.5: A Reusable Diaper (Nappy) Life Cycle.

Figure 1.6: LCA is a “cradle-to-grave” assessment which spans the gathering of raw materials from the earth, manufacturing and use, on through to the return of materials to the earth. The arrows represent transportation.

Figure 1.7: The Evolution of the Life Cycle Assessment Framework.

Figure 1.8: ISO Life Cycle Assessment Framework. This excerpt is adapted from ISO 14040:2006, Figure 1, page 8 with the permission of ANSI on behalf of ISO. © ISO 2015 - All rights reserved.

Figure 1.9: A Concrete Example of an LCA Flow Diagram

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1: Abiotic Depletion Potential Characterisation of Two Wine Systems Assuming Volume, Alcoholic Degree and Hedonistic Value as Functional Unit (FU).

Figure 2.2: Fragment of a simplified flow diagram for an LCA on television (TV) sets. Because the purpose is to show how unit process are connected, only the flows from and to other unit processes are displayed; flows from and to the environment as well as transport, packaging, etc., are not displayed.

Figure 2.3: Relationship between midpoint impact categories and three areas of protection

Figure E.1: Results of multiple LCAs show the different Cumulative Energy Demand (billions of MJ) of 13 product types sold in North America and Western Europe, and focuses attention on where innovation would be most helpful to reduce energy use.

Figure 1: Flow diagram for production and use of virgin motor oil.

Figure 2: Flow diagram for production and use of re-refined motor oil.

Chapter 3

Figure 3: Flow diagram for production and use of bio-based motor oil.

Figure 3.1: General template of a unit process. The process (grey rectangle) is considered as a black box, having inputs (left-hand side) and outputs (right-hand side) from and to other unit process (top lines) and from and to the environment (bottom lines).

Figure 3.2: Fragment of a simplified flow diagram for an LCA on television (TV) sets. Because the purpose is to show how unit process are connected, only the flows from and to other unit processes are displayed, and flows from and to the environment are hidden. All transport, packaging, etc. has been left out as well.

Figure 3.3: Multiple Co-Products from a Unit Process.

Figure 3.4: System Expansion of Product C, being compared with Product A (Tillman et al 1994).

Figure 3.5: Open Loop and Closed Loop Recycling. http://www.greener-industry.org.uk/pages/recycling/2recyc_understand.xhtml.

Figure 3.6: Flow of Data from Raw Data through to the LCI Data User with Feedback Loops (UNEP/SETAC 2011).

Figure 3.7: Unit process datasets within databases can be aggregated multiple ways, including various combinations of horizontal and vertical aggregation (UNEP/SETAC 2011).

Figure 3.8: Life Cycle Inventory Data Collection Form.

Figure 3.9: Example Spreadsheet Reporting Life Cycle Inventory Data and Meta Data.

Figure 3.10: LCA software “transforming” data via a model that is generated within the software to a result that is then finally used to support a decision (Ciroth 2006).

Figure 3.11: Screenshot of the CMLCA User Interface.

Figure 3.12: Screenshot Gemis – Process Network Visualisation.

Figure 3.13: SolidWorks Sustainability XPress, Screenshot from youtube Video.

Figure 3.14: SimaPro Sankey diagram results view, SimaPro 7.3.2.

Figure 3.15: Sankey modeling diagram in GaBi v4.

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1: Impact models progresses from inventory flow to damage for classic midpoint impact categories (Bare and Gloria 2006).

Figure 4.2: Progression from inventory flows to damage for human health (Bare and Gloria 2006).

Figure 4.3: Example Classification and Characterization Steps for Global Warming Potential, Human Health Toxicity and Ecological Toxicity

Figure 4.4: Assigning inventory releases to midpoint categories, and midpoint to endpoint categories

Figure 4.5: Results of Modeling Four Window Types Using the ILCD Handbook, ReCiPe and Impact 2002+ (Owsianiak et al 2014).

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1: Elements of the LCIA phase are mandatory or optional, depending on the goal of the study. This excerpt is from ISO 14040:2006, Figure 4, page 15 with the permission of ANSI on behalf of ISO. © ISO 2015 - All rights reserved.

Figure 5.2: Improper Summing of Results to Arrive at a Total.

Figure 5.3: Weighted Scores for various transportation fuels: 100% Biodiesel (BD100), Electrical Vehicle (EV), Low Sulfur Diesel (LSD), Ethanol (EtOH), and Gasoline (GAS). The scores are according to a weight set given by Producers, Users and Experts for Short and Long Term impacts. The criteria evaluated were Fossil Fuel depletion (FF), Global Warming (GW), Smog (SMOG), Acidification (ACID), Eutrophication (EUT), and human health criteria air pollutants (HHCR).

Figure 5.4: Linear Preference Function.

Figure 5.5a: Performance Assessment of Alternatives A and B in three categories, note that each category is measured in different units. (Below): Assigned criteria weights

Figure 5.5b: Overall weighted score after internal normalization of division by maximum and external single-value weighting for Alternatives A and B

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1: Life Cycle Assessment is a highly Iterative Process (JRC 2010).

Figure 6.2: Detailed Interpretation Phase and its Relationship to the Other Phases within the LCA Framework.

Figure 6.3: Showing Uncertainty in Life Cycle Assessment Results for Gasoline (Gas), Low Sulfur Diesel (LSD), Biodiesel (BD100), Electric Vehicle (EV) and Ethanol (EtOH) (Rogers and Seager 2009).

Figure 6.5: Overview of Monte Carlo Analysis to Determine Uncertainty.

Figure 6.6: Contribution Analysis by Impact Category, Relative % by Lifecycle Stage.

Figure 6.7: Reporting Impact Indicators in a Spider Diagram (normalized to the product with the highest impact score).

Figure 6.8: Comparing Four Lamps - Incandescent (Inc), Compact Fluorescent (CFL), and Light Emitting Diode (LED) for the present (2012) and future (2017) technology (DOE 2013).

Figure 6.9: Timing the Peer Review.

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1: Framework for Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis (Guinée et al 2011).

Figure 7.2: Empirical knowledge and normative positions in the framework at the basis of the transdisciplinary integration (Zamagni et al 2009).

Figure 7.3: Social LCA is an iterative process.

Guide

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Table of Contents

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Life Cycle Assessment Student Handbook

Edited by

Mary Ann Curran

Copyright © 2015 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.

Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem, Massachusetts.
Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-1-119-08354-2

Preface

This student handbook was created to serve as a companion to the 2012 Life Cycle Assessment Handbook¹, a compilation of writings by eminent leaders in the field of LCA and related methodology. The LCA Handbook was designed to be as comprehensive as possible, covering every facet of LCA methodology and presenting a variety of applications. This was quite a challenge given the ever-growing scope and acceptance of LCA over the years as an environmental management tool. The final product far exceeded my initial expectation. The chapter authors provided clear insight into the various aspects of LCA methodology and practice, and they openly shared their invaluable wisdom, experience and knowledge. However, the LCA Handbook does not attempt to explain in step-wise fashion how the various phases of an LCA can be completed. Other similar books and documents have also been published on LCA reflecting the ISO-standard² approach. But, again, few “how-to” guides exist. This student handbook is intended to fill that gap by addressing the individual steps of conducting, interpreting, and reporting an LCA.

For the sake of consistency, and maintaining a uniform “voice,” the student handbook repeats much of the text prepared by the experts who contributed to the LCA Handbook. Because of the way in which the LCA Handbook was compiled, the chapters reproduce much of the same background introductory descriptions and the discussions on key issues scattered throughout the book. The student handbook brings these parts together in the appropriate sequence so that the chapters and sections present procedural guidance for conducting an LCA.

The student handbook then builds upon the various aspects of LCA practice with pertinent exercises for the reader to complete in order to help reinforce the messages within the sections. These exercises intend to help students gain a better understanding of the details involved in conducting an LCA by putting them in the position of both commissioner and practitioner of an assessment. In most cases, the exercises are thought problems, rather than ones requiring calculations or precise solutions. The aim is to encourage readers to look closer at certain methodological issues and check their understanding of them.

After presenting a brief overview (Chapter 1), the student handbook delves into the details of the stages that comprise LCA methodology: goal and scope definition (Chapter 2), life cycle inventory (Chapter 3), life cycle impact assessment (Chapter 4), normalization, grouping, and weighting (Chapter 5), and interpretation (Chapter 6). Chapter 7 addresses forward thinking applications of LCA in Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA) including the role of modeling social impacts. The final chapter (8) provides additional resources readers might find useful.

The handbook aims to focus on LCA methodology and not extend into related, yet tangential, topics such as the life cycle of buildings, or life-cycle (eco)design. Also, the student handbook does not address the application of exergy analysis to LCA. There are many other textbooks that the reader can refer to that cover this topic in detail. As mentioned, Chapter 7 does address the topic of Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA), including Social LCA, which the LCA Handbook also covers. Although not in detail, the chapter introduces the topic in order to give readers an idea of the future direction that is expected for LCA as its application moves toward meeting sustainability goals.

My sincere thanks go to the authors of the chapters in the LCA Handbook, which form the basis of the student handbook. Readers are encouraged to refer to the LCA Handbook as needed. Each chapter of the student handbook begins with page references to the LCA Handbook to make this easier for the reader.

1. Life Cycle Assessment Handbook Chapters and Authors:

Environmental Life Cycle Assessment: Background and Perspective Gjalt Huppes and Mary Ann Curran

Part 1: Methodology and Current State of LCA Practice

An Overview of the Life Cycle Assessment Method – Past and Future
Reinout Heijungs and Jeroen B. Guinée

Life Cycle Inventory Modeling in Practice
Beverly Sauer

Life Cycle Impact Assessment
Manuele Margni and Mary Ann Curran

Sourcing Life Cycle Inventory Data
Mary Ann Curran

Software for Life Cycle Assessment
Andreas Ciroth

Part 2: LCA Applications

Modeling the Agri-Food Industry with Life Cycle Assessment
Bruno Notarnicola, Giuseppe Tassielli and Pietro A. Renzulli

Exergy Analysis and its Connection to Life Cycle Assessment
Marc A. Rosen, Ibrahim Dincer and Ahmet Ozbilen

Accounting for Ecosystem Goods and Services in Life Cycle Assessment and Process Design
Erin F. Landers, Robert A. Urban and Bhavik R. Bakshi

A Case Study of the Practice of Sustainable Supply Chain Management
Annie Weisbrod and Larry Loftus

Life Cycle Assessment and End of Life Materials Management
Keith A. Weitz

Application of LCA in Mining and Minerals Processing – Current Programs and Noticeable Gaps
Mary Stewart, Peter Holt and Rob Rouwette

Sustainable Preservative-Treated Forest Products, Their Life Cycle Environmental Impacts, and End of Life Management Opportunities: A Case Study
Christopher A. Bolin

Buildings, Systems Thinking, and Life Cycle Assessment
Joel Ann Todd

Life Cycle Assessment in Product Innovation
Nuno Da Silva

LCA as a Tool in Food Waste Reduction and Packaging Optimization – Packaging Innovation and Optimization in a Life Cycle Perspective
Ole Jørgen Hanssen, Hanne Møller, Erik Svanes and Vibeke Schakenda

Integration of LCA and Life-Cycle Thinking within the Themes of Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering
Shawn Hunter, Richard Helling and Dawn Shiang

Part 3: LCA Supports Decision Making and Sustainability

How to Approach the Assessment?
José Potting, Shabbir Gheewala, Sébastien Bonnet and Joost van Buuren

Integration of MCDA Tools in Valuation of Comparative Life Cycle Assessment
Valentina Prado, Kristen Rogers and Thomas P. Seager

Social LCA: Technique Providing a New Wealth of Information to Inform Sustainability-Related Decision Making
Catherine Benoît Norris

Life Cycle Sustainability Analysis
Alessandra Zamagni, Jeroen Guinée, Reinout Heijungs and Paolo Masoni

Environmental Product Claims and Life Cycle Assessment
Martha J. Stevenson and Wesley W. Ingwersen

Part 4: Operationalizing LCA

Building Capacity for Life Cycle Assessment in Developing Countries
Toolseeram Ramjeawon

Environmental Accountability: A New Paradigm for World Trade is Emerging
Ann K. Ngo

Life Cycle Knowledge Informs Greener Products
James Fava

“If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants.”
Isaac Newton, Letter to Robert Hooke, February 5, 1675

Mary Ann Curran, PhD
Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
March 2015

¹ Life Cycle Assessment Handbook: A Guide for Environmentally Sustainable Products (2012) MA Curran (ed) Scrivener-Wiley Publishing; ISBN 9778-1-118-09972-8; 640 pages.

² ISO 14040:2006 Environmental Management – Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework, International Standard, International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland.

Chapter 1
Introduction to Life Cycle Assessment

Abstract

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a holistic, cradle-to-grave environmental approach which provides a comprehensive view of the environmental aspects of a product or process throughout its life cycle. A properly conducted LCA identifies and quantifies the potential impacts of an industrial system (aiming to assess products, processes and activities). But more importantly, LCA identifies the potential transfer of environmental impacts from one media to another and/or from one life cycle stage to another. If an LCA were not performed, these trade-offs might not be recognized and properly included in the analysis because it is outside of the typical scope or focus of the decision making process.

This chapter explores why it is important to use a life cycle perspective in environmental management. It outlines the advancement of pollution strategies over the years, moving from end-of-pipe to pollution prevention (cleaner production) strategies and later to life cycle based approaches to meet sustainability goals. The key benefit of LCA, to identify potential transfer of environmental impacts, is demonstrated in a few brief examples. The chapter also presents the basic LCA methodology as described in a series of standards and technical reports produced by the International Standards Organization (ISO).

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!