Part I

Arduino Engineering Basics

In This Part

Chapter 1: Getting Up and Blinking with the Arduino

Chapter 2: Digital Inputs, Outputs, and Pulse-Width Modulation

Chapter 3: Reading Analog Sensors

Chapter 1

Getting Up and Blinking with the Arduino

Parts You’ll Need for This Chapter:

Arduino Uno

USB cable

CODE AND DIGITAL CONTENT FOR THIS CHAPTER

Code downloads, videos, and other digital content for this chapter can be found at www.exploringarduino.com/content/ch1. In addition, all code can be found at www.wiley.com/go/exploringarduino on the Download Code tab. The code is in the chapter 01 download and individually named according to the names throughout the chapter.

Now that you have some perspective on the Arduino platform and its capabilities, it’s time to explore your options in the world of Arduino. In this chapter, you examine the available hardware, learn about the programming environment and language, and get your first program up and running. Once you have a grip on the functionality that the Arduino can provide, you’ll write your first program and get the Arduino to blink!

NOTE To follow along with a video that introduces the Arduino platform, visit www.jeremyblum.com/2011/01/02/arduino-tutorial-series-it-begins/. You can also find this video on the Wiley website shown at the beginning of this chapter.

Exploring the Arduino Ecosystem

In your adventures with the Arduino, you’ll depend on three main components for your projects:

The Arduino board itself

External hardware (including both shields and hand-made circuits, which you’ll explore throughout this book)

The Arduino integrated development environment, or Arduino IDE

All these system components work in tandem to enable you do just about anything with your Arduino.

You have a lot of options when it comes to Arduino development boards, but this book focuses on using official Arduino boards. Because the boards are all designed to be programmable via the same IDE, you can generally use any of the modern Arduino boards to complete the projects in this book with zero or minor changes. However, when necessary, you’ll see caveats about using different boards for various projects. The majority of the projects use the Arduino Uno.

You start by exploring the basic functionality baked in to every Arduino board. Then you examine the differences between each modern board so that you can make an informed decision when choosing a board to use for your next project.

Arduino Functionality

All Arduino boards have a few key capabilities and functions. Take a moment to examine the Arduino Uno (see Figure 1-1); it will be your base configuration. These are some key components that you’ll be concerning yourself with:

Atmel microcontroller

USB programming/communication interface(s)

Voltage regulator and power connections

Breakout I/O pins

Debug, Power, and RX/TX LEDs

Reset button

In-circuit serial programmer (ICSP) connector(s)

Figure 1-1: Arduino Uno components

Credit: Arduino, www.arduino.cc

Atmel Microcontroller

At the heart of every Arduino is an Atmel microcontroller unit (MCU). Most Arduino boards, including the Arduino Uno, use an AVR ATMega microcontroller. The Arduino Uno in Figure 1-1 uses an ATMega 328p. The Due is an exception; it uses an ARM Cortex microcontroller. This microcontroller is responsible for holding all of your compiled code and executing the commands you specify. The Arduino programming language gives you access to microcontroller peripherals, including analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), general-purpose input/output (I/O) pins, communication buses (including I2C and SPI), and serial interfaces. All of this useful functionality is broken out from the tiny pins on the microcontroller to accessible female headers on the Arduino that you can plug wires or shields into. A 16 MHz ceramic resonator is wired to the ATMega’s clock pins, which serves as the reference by which all program commands execute. You can use the Reset button to restart the execution of your program. Most Arduino boards come with a debug LED already connected to pin 13, which enables you to run your first program (blinking an LED) without connecting any additional circuitry.

Programming Interfaces

Ordinarily, ATMega microcontroller programs are written in C or Assembly and programmed via the ICSP interface using a dedicated programmer (see Figure 1-2). Perhaps the most important characteristic of an Arduino is that you can program it easily via USB, without using a separate programmer. This functionality is made possible by the Arduino bootloader. The bootloader is loaded onto the ATMega at the factory (using the ICSP header), which allows a serial USART (Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) to load your program on the Arduino without using a separate programmer. (You can learn more about how the bootloader functions in “The Arduino Bootloader and Firmware Setup” sidebar.)

In the case of the Arduino Uno and Mega 2560, a secondary microcontroller (an ATMega 16U2 or 8U2 depending on your revision) serves as an interface between a USB cable and the serial USART pins on the main microcontroller. The Arduino Leonardo, which uses an ATMega 32U4 as the main microcontroller, has USB baked right in, so a secondary microcontroller is not needed. In older Arduino boards, an FTDI brand USB-to-serial chip was used as the interface between the ATMega’s serial USART port and a USB connection.

Figure 1-2: AVR ISP MKII programmer

Credit: © 2013 Atmel Corporation. All rights reserved.

General I/O and ADCs

The part of the Arduino that you’ll care the most about during your projects is the general-purpose I/O and ADC pins. All of these pins can be individually addressed via the programs you’ll write. All of them can serve as digital inputs and outputs. The ADC pins can also act as analog inputs that can measure voltages between 0 and 5V (usually from resistive sensors). Many of these pins are also multiplexed to serve additional functions, which you will explore during your projects. These special functions include various communication interfaces, serial interfaces, pulse-width-modulated outputs, and external interrupts.

Power Supplies

For the majority of your projects, you will simply use the 5V power that is provided over your USB cable. However, when you’re ready to untether your project from a computer, you have other power options. The Arduino can accept between 6V and 20V (7-12V recommend) via the direct current (DC) barrel jack connector, or into the Vin pin. The Arduino has built-in 5V and 3.3V regulators:

5V is used for all the logic on the board. In other words, when you toggle a digital I/O pin, you are toggling it between 5V and 0V.

3.3V is broken out to a pin to accommodate 3.3V shields and external circuitry.

The Arduino Bootloader and Firmware Setup

A bootloader is a chunk of code that lives in a reserved space in the program memory of the Arduino’s main MCU. In general, AVR microcontrollers are programmed with an ICSP, which talks to the microcontroller via a serial peripheral interface (SPI). Programming via this method is fairly straightforward, but necessitates the user having a hardware programmer such as an STK500 or an AVR ISP MKII programmer (see Figure 1-2).

When you first boot the Arduino board, it enters the bootloader, which runs for a few seconds. If it receives a programming command from the IDE over the MCU’s UART (serial interface) in that time period, it loads the program that you are sending it into the rest of the MCU’s program memory. If it does not receive a programming command, it starts running your most recently uploaded sketch, which resides in the rest of the program memory.

When you send an “upload” command from the Arduino IDE, it instructs the USB-to-serial chip (an ATMega 16U2 or 8U2 in the case of the Arduino Uno) to reset the main MCU, hence forcing it into the bootloader. Then, your computer immediately begins to send the program contents, which the MCU is ready to receive over its UART connection (facilitated by the USB-to-serial converter).

Bootloaders are great because they enable simple programming via USB with no external hardware. However, they do have two downsides:

First, they take up valuable program space. If you have written a complicated sketch, the approximately 2KB of space taken up by the bootloader might be really valuable.

Second, using a bootloader means that your program will always be delayed by a few seconds at boot as the bootloader checks for a programming request.

If you have a programmer (or another Arduino that can be programmed to act as a programmer), you can remove the bootloader from your ATMega and program it directly by connecting your programmer to the ICSP header and using the File ⇒ Upload Using Programmer command from within the IDE.

Arduino Boards

This book cannot possibly cover all the available Arduino boards; there are many, and manufacturers are constantly releasing new ones with various features. The following section highlights some of the features in the official Arduino boards.

The Uno (see Figure 1-3) is the flagship Arduino and will be used heavily in this book. It uses a 16U2 USB-to-serial converter chip and an ATMega 328p as the main MCU. It is available in both DIP and SMD versions (which defines whether the MCU is removable).

Figure 1-3: The Arduino Uno

Credit: Arduino, www.arduino.cc

The Leonardo (see Figure 1-4) uses the 32U4 as the main microcontroller, which has a USB interface built in. Therefore, it doesn’t need a secondary MCU to perform the serial-to-USB conversion. This cuts down on the cost and enables you to do unique things like emulate a joystick or a keyboard instead of a simple serial device. You will learn how to use these features in Chapter 6, “USB and Serial Communication.”

Figure 1-4: The Arduino Leonardo

Credit: Arduino, www.arduino.cc

The Mega 2560 (see Figure 1-5) employs an ATMega 2560 as the main MCU, which has 54 general I/Os to enable you to interface with many more devices. The Mega also has more ADC channels, and has four hardware serial interfaces (unlike the one serial interface found on the Uno).

Figure 1-5: The Arduino Mega 2560

Credit: Arduino, www.arduino.cc

Unlike all the other Arduino variants, which use 8-bit AVR MCUs, the Due (see Figure 1-6) uses a 32-bit ARM Cortex M3 SAM3X MCU. The Due offers higher-precision ADCs, selectable resolution pulse-width modulation (PWM), Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs), a USB host connector, and an 84 MHz clock speed.

Figure 1-6: The Arduino Due

Credit: Arduino, www.arduino.cc

The Nano (see Figure 1-7) is designed to be mounted right into a breadboard socket. Its small form factor makes it perfect for use in more finished projects.

Figure 1-7: The Arduino Nano

Credit: Cooking Hacks, www.cookinghacks.com

The Mega ADK (see Figure 1-8) is very similar to the Mega 2560, except that it has USB host functionality, allowing it to connect to an Android phone so that it can communicate with apps that you write.

Figure 1-8: The Arduino Mega ADK

Credit: Arduino, www.arduino.cc

The LilyPad (see Figure 1-9) is unique because it is designed to be sewn into clothing. Using conductive thread, you can wire it up to sewable sensors, LEDs, and more. To keep size down, you need to program it using an FTDI cable.

Figure 1-9: The LilyPad Arduino

Credit: Arduino, www.arduino.cc

As explained in this book’s introduction, the Arduino is open source hardware. As a result, you can find dozens and dozens of “Arduino compatible” devices available for sale that will work just fine with the Arduino IDE and all the projects you’ll do in this book. Some of the popular third-party boards include the Seeduino, the Adafruit 32U4 breakout board, and the SparkFun Pro Mini Arduino boards. Many third-party boards are designed for very particular applications, with additional functionality already built into the board. For example, the ArduPilot is an autopilot board for use in autonomous DIY quadcopters (see Figure 1-10). You can even find Arduino-compatible circuitry baked into consumer devices like the MakerBot Replicator and Replicator 2 3D printers.

Figure 1-10: Quadcopter and ArduPilot Mega controller

Credit: 3D Robotics, Inc., www.3drobotics.com

Creating Your First Program

Now that you understand the hardware that you’ll be using throughout this book, you can install the software and run your first program. Start by downloading the Arduino software to your computer.

Downloading and Installing the Arduino IDE

Access the Arduino website at www.arduino.cc and download the newest version of the IDE from the Download page (see Figure 1-11).

Figure 1-11: The Arduino.cc Download page

After completing the download, unzip it. Inside, you’ll find the Arduino IDE. New versions of the Windows IDE are available as an installer that you can download and run, instead of downloading a ZIP file.

Running the IDE and Connecting to the Arduino

Now that you have the IDE downloaded and ready to run, you can connect the Arduino to your computer via USB, as shown in Figure 1-12. Mac and Linux machines install the drivers (mostly) automatically.

If you are using OS X, the first time you plug in an Uno or a Mega 2560, you will get a notification that a new network device has been added. Click the Network Preferences button. In the new window, click Apply. Even though the board will appear as “Not Configured” in the network device list, it will be ready to use. Now, quit System Preferences.

If you are using a modern Arduino on a Windows computer, you will probably need to install drivers. You can skip the following directions if you are not using a Windows computer that needs to have drivers installed. If you installed the IDE using the Windows installer, then these steps have been completed for you. If you downloaded the ZIP on your Windows machine, then you will need to follow the directions shown next.

Figure 1-12: Arduino Uno connected to a computer via USB

On your Windows computer, follow these steps to install the drivers (instructions adapted from the Arduino.cc website):

1. Wait for the automatic install process to fail.

2. Open the Start menu, right-click My Computer, and select Properties.

3. Choose Device Manager.

4. Look under Ports (COM and LPT) for the Arduino that you connected.

5. Right-click it and choose Update Driver Software.

6. Choose to browse your computer for software.

7. Select the appropriate driver from the drivers directory of the Arduino IDE that you just downloaded (not the FTDI drivers directory).

8. Windows will now finish the driver installation.

Now, launch the Arduino IDE. You’re ready to load your first program onto your Arduino. To ensure that everything is working as expected, you’ll load the Blink example program, which will blink the onboard LED. Most Arduinos have an LED connected to pin 13. Navigate to File ⇒ Examples ⇒ Basic, and click the Blink program. This opens a new IDE window with the Blink program already written for you. First, you’ll program the Arduino with this example sketch, and then you’ll analyze the program to understand the important components so that you can start to write your own programs in the next chapter.

Before you load the program, you need to tell the IDE what kind of Arduino you have connected and what port it is connected to. Go to Tools ⇒ Board and ensure that the right board is selected. This example uses the Uno, but if you are using a different board, select that one (assuming that it also has an LED connected to pin 13).

The last step before programming is to tell the IDE what port your board is connected to. Navigate to Tools ⇒ Serial Port and select the appropriate port. On Windows machines, this will be COM*, where * is some number representing the serial port number.

TIP If you have multiple serial devices attached to your computer, try unplugging your board to see which COM port disappears from the menu; then plug it back in and select that COM port.

On Linux and Mac computers, the serial port looks something like /dev/tty.usbmodem* or /dev/tty.usbserial*, where * is a string of alphanumeric characters.

You’re finally ready to load your first program. Click the Upload button () on the top left of the IDE. The status bar at the bottom of the IDE shows a progress bar as it compiles and uploads your program. When the upload completes, the yellow LED on your Arduino should be blinking once per second. Congratulations! You’ve just uploaded your first Arduino program.

Breaking Down Your First Program

Take a moment to deconstruct the Blink program so that you understand the basic structure of programs written for the Arduino. Consider Figure 1-13. The numbered callouts shown in the figure correspond to the following list.

Here’s how the code works, piece by piece:

1. This is a multiline comment. Comments are important for documenting your code. Everything you write between these symbols will not be compiled or even seen by your Arduino. Multiline comments start with /* and end with */. Multiline comments are generally used when you have to say a lot (like the description of this program).

2. This is a single-line comment. When you put // on any line, the compiler ignores all text after that symbol on the same line. This is great for annotating specific lines of code or for “commenting out” a particular line of code that you believe might be causing problems.

3. This code is a variable declaration. A variable is a place in the Arduino’s memory that holds information. Variables have different types. In this case, it’s of type int, which means it will hold an integer. In this case, an integer variable called led is being set to the value of 13, the pin that the LED is connected to on the Arduino Uno. Throughout the rest of the program, we can simply use led whenever we want to control pin 13. Setting variables is useful because you can just change this one line if you hook up your LED to a different I/O pin later on; the rest of the code will still work as expected.

4. void setup() is one of two functions that must be included in every Arduino program. A function is a piece of code that does a specific task. Code within the curly braces of the setup() function is executed once at the start of the program. This is useful for one-time settings, such as setting the direction of pins, initializing communication interfaces, and so on.

Figure 1-13: The components of the Blink program

5. The Arduino’s digital pins can function as input or outputs. To configure their direction, use the command pinMode(). This command takes two arguments. An argument gives commands information on how they should operate. Arguments are placed inside the parentheses following a command. The first argument to pinMode determines which pin is having its direction set. Because you defined the led variable earlier in the program, you are telling the command that you want to set the direction of pin 13. The second argument sets the direction of the pin: INPUT or OUTPUT. Pins are inputs by default, so you need to explicitly set them to outputs if you want them to function as outputs. Because you want to light an LED, you have set the led pin to an output (current is flowing out of the I/O pin). Note that you have to do this only one time. It will then function as an output for the rest of the program, or until you change it to an input.

6. The second required function in all Arduino programs is void loop(). The contents of the loop function repeat forever as long as the Arduino is on. If you want your Arduino to do something once at boot only, you still need to include the loop function, but you can leave it empty.

7. digitalWrite() is used to set the state of an output pin. It can set the pin to either 5V or 0V. When an LED and resistor is connected to a pin, setting it to 5V will enable you to light up the LED. (You learn more about this in the next chapter.) The first argument to digitalWrite() is the pin you want to control. The second argument is the value you want to set it to, either HIGH (5V) or LOW (0V). The pin remains in this state until it is changed in the code.

8. The delay() function accepts one argument: a delay time in milliseconds. When calling delay(), the Arduino stops doing anything for the amount of time specified. In this case, you are delaying the program for 1000ms, or 1 second. This results in the LED staying on for 1 second before you execute the next command.

9. Here, digitalWrite() is used to turn the LED off, by setting the pin state to LOW.

10. Again, we delay for 1 second to keep the LED in the off state before the loop repeats and switches to the on state again.

That’s all there is to it. Don’t be intimidated if you don’t fully understand all the code yet. As you put together more examples in the following chapters, you’ll become more and more proficient at understanding program flow, and writing your own code.

Summary

In this chapter you learned about the following:

All the components that comprise an Arduino board

How the Arduino bootloader allows you to program Arduino firmware over a USB connection

The differences between the various available Arduino boards

How to connect and install the Arduino with your system

How to load and run your first program

Chapter 2

Digital Inputs, Outputs, and Pulse-Width Modulation

Parts You’ll Need for This Chapter:

Arduino Uno

Small breadboard

Jumper wires

1 10kΩ resistor

3 220Ω resistors

USB cable

Pushbutton

5mm single-color LED

5mm common-cathode RGB LED

CODE AND DIGITAL CONTENT FOR THIS CHAPTER

Code downloads, videos, and other digital content for this chapter can be found at www.exploringarduino.com/content/ch2.

In addition, all code can be found at www.wiley.com/go/exploringarduino on the Download Code tab. The code is in the chapter 02 download and individually named according to the names throughout the chapter.

Blinking an LED is great, as you learned in the preceding chapter, but what makes the Arduino microcontroller platform so useful is that the system is equipped with both inputs and outputs. By combining both, your opportunities are nearly limitless. For example, you can use a magnetic reed switch to play music when your door opens, create an electronic lockbox, or build a light-up musical instrument!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!