By the rubbish in our wake, and the noble noise we make,

Be sure, be sure, we’re going to do some splendid things!

Rudyard Kipling, ‘The Road Song of the Bandar-Log’

Fourth edition published 2008 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd,

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Third edition published 2000

Second edition published 1996

Revised edition published 1992

First edition published 1991 by Open University Press

Copyright © Andrew Porteous 1991, 1992, 1996, 2000, 2008

All rights reserved.

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-0-470-06194-7 (cloth)

978-0-470-06195-4 (paper)

To Margaret, for forty-five years of support,
care and love. And to Neil for the future

Preface to Fourth Edition

This book is in effect, my ‘apologia pro vita mea,’ thus all errors, omissions and commissions are down to me.

I have lived and breathed responsible environmental management all of my professional life, which commenced at the Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth College, USA, in 1964. The School instilled in me a thorough grounding in rational resource management, engineering rigour, and the necessity for accountable professional conduct.

It was with this background and in the belief that too much environmental illiteracy abounded that I essayed my first work The Environment – A Dictionary of the World around Us, published by Arrow in 1976. This was written in association with my friend and colleague Geoffrey Hollister, the visionary founding Dean of The Open University’s Technology Faculty. Subsequently, this oeuvre metamorphosed into the current series of Dictionaries.

This edition would not have been possible without the unstinting help of my colleague and friend Dr Suresh Nesaratnam, Senior Lecturer in Environmental Engineering at The Open University, allied with the dedicated secretarial assistance of Mrs Rozy Carleton.

There is little left to say that has not been covered in the previous Prefaces except to bemoan (again) the levels of environmental ignorance and posturing of our political masters – plus ça change.

I conclude with the Persian proverb which has guided me since I discovered it in Dartmouth College Library in 1965.

‘God will not seek thy race, nor will He ask thy birth. Alone, He will demand of thee “What hast thou done with the land that I gave thee?” ’

Persian Proverb
Discovered in Dartmouth (USA) College Library (1965)

Preface to Third Edition

The need to consider the environmental impacts of any industrial activity is now taken for granted.

Advances in environmental literacy have led to much more questioning of, and accountability from, environmental professionals. Both are to be greatly welcomed.

This text has yet again been expanded to aid the above goals. I am gratified that it still is found to be useful.

My grateful thanks to all my colleagues (listed in the preface to the first edition) plus new colleagues, Dr Suresh T. Nesaratnam and Dr Stephen Burnley.

My secretary Mrs Morine Gordon has, as ever, helped the gestation immensely.

The holistic view of Lavoisier (1743–1794):

Rien ne se perd, rien ne se creé, tout se transforme

[Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed] still holds true. It is how the transformation is effected that counts.

Andrew Porteous
Professor of Environmental Engineering
Faculty of Technology
The Open University
May 2000

Preface to Second Edition

Time marches on as they say, and this second edition is my way of documenting advances in environmental practices, knowledge and perceptions.

The opportunity has been taken to greatly expand the contents. I hope it meets with your approval.

My grateful thanks to my colleagues and my secretary Mrs Morine Gordon for typing this second edition.

Balaam (Numbers, Chapter 24), ‘I came to curse [this task] but stayed to bless it!’

Andrew Porteous
Professor of Environmental Engineering
Faculty of Technology
The Open University

Preface

This text springs from an earlier attempt when, along with my colleague Geoffrey Holister, we endeavoured to lay the foundations for widespread environmental literacy in The Environment – a dictionary of the world around us published in 1976. This new work is not quite so ambitious; it is focused on the science and technology of environmental protection and resource management, as this is where the environmental payoffs are greatest.

The text has been principally written in basic SI units of kg, m, s, but in Tables and Figures, the units may be sub-values of the basic SI units, e.g. g/m³ or kg/h. The SI system is admirable for setting out theory and equations but can become cumbersome if numerical values have to be written frequently in terms of powers of ten. For example, volume flows have been written as litre/s which is much more familiar than using 10–3 m/s. Equations are written for temperatures in K, but Tables and Figures are given in °C because this is the common unit of practical measurement. On occasions, concentrations have been given in non-SI units as these are often enshrined in current legislation or codes of practice.

I should like to put on record my thanks to my colleagues Judy Anderson and Rod Barratt, who have reviewed the text with diligence, and to Lesley Booth who had the trying task of typing it. My colleagues Keith Attenborough, David Cooke, and David Yeoman have kindly commented on specific entries. Caryl Hunter-Brown, OU liaison librarian, compiled the invaluable directory of environmental organizations.

Andrew Porteous
Professor of Environmental Engineering
Faculty of Technology
The Open University

Introduction

Stanley Clinton Davis in his 1987 Royal Society of Arts Lecture ‘The European Year of the Environment’ gave two reasons why the public wanted action by government on environmental issues now rather than later. These are given below.

All governmental decisions tend to be taken under pressure from particular special interest groups. And it is a sad fact that the producers of pollution are on the whole better at exerting such pressure than those who have to live with its consequences. The manufacturers of nitrate fertilizers are well organized to ensure that their views are known in official circles. Those who worry about the fish that subsequently die are not. There are, of course, exceptions to this rule. There are well organized campaigns in which the view of the man and woman in the street is fully brought home to the man (and sometimes woman) in the Ministerial Office – I vividly recall the recent example of baby seals – but they are rare. I have direct explanations of why they should continue to do whatever it is they are doing. And I receive a steady stream of letters from the public inevitably tending to be more personal, and less well argued. I find that I have to be constantly on the alert not to let myself be misled by the different levels of presentation.

The second reason why people are better than governments at spotting environmental needs goes still deeper. It is because environmental policy is fundamentally about the future, while governmental decision making is often too exclusively focused on the present.

These were brought home to me when I heard two senior British politicians respectively declaim on a television discussion programme ‘PCBs cause toxic algae blooms in the North Sea’ and ‘Fitting catalytic converters to cars may reduce sulphur dioxide but will still produce gases that deplete the ozone layer’.

More recently, the December 2007 political announcement that the UK will install 33 GW-worth of wind turbines around the coast by 2020, without regard to the feasibility of such an undertaking in terms of its cost, rate of construction and installation, and ensuring the National Grid can cope, let alone the ecological consequences, beggars belief. This is equivalent to the construction of 15–20 thermal power stations.

This book is written in the hope that it may contribute to environmental literacy, by providing basic definitions and data plus demonstrate the nature of the issues. Where appropriate, the technology and/or measures that are already available to prevent pollution and aid resource conservation are outlined. As our understanding of these becomes clearer, we may at least begin to appreciate a number of things that we must obviously not do and that is a start of sorts.

In writing this book I have had to select information from an almost infinite source of data, much of it conflicting. In making this selection, I have naturally had to apply my own value judgements as to which data are relevant and important and which are not. In doing this, I have attempted to be as objective as possible, but under such circumstances perfect objectivity is quite impossible. We cannot assess the value of data without passing a tacit judgement on the character of the source. Objectivity does not consist in giving equal weight to all statements.

Environmental problems are essentially multi-faceted and demand at least a nodding acquaintance with many previously separate specialisms – ecology, economics, sociology, technology, physics, chemistry, and so on. The world is an enormously complex system and it is in the nature of complex systems that the characteristics of the connections between the constituent parts are often more important than the nature of the separate parts themselves.

This book is designed for a multi-access approach on the part of the reader – it can be dipped into, as well as read straight through. The reason for this format is the obvious diversity of backgrounds and interests of the readers. Most of you who read this book will have some specialist knowledge of some aspect of our technological society, and are likely to be interested in one particular aspect of our environment more than another. The format of this book allows you to select those areas of interest, although because of the complex nature of environmental issues, you will find that wherever you start in this book, you will be led inexorably by the references to other areas of the problem that are probably new to you. But that is the nature of environment; everything is related, in some way or another, to everything else.

As Chief Seattle of the Suquamish Indians said of the earth over 130 years ago:

… The earth does not belong to man; man belongs to the earth … all things are connected …

Man did not weave the web of life, he is merely a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.

Acknowledgements

Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources for permission to reproduce material in this book:

Figure 1: Based on material supplied courtesy of CEGB Research, with permission of the Editor

Figures 6, 7, and 53: Based on material supplied by Enpure, Kidderminster, England

Figure 8: Based on material in Renewable Energy, Issue 6, January 1989, Department of the Environment

Figures 13 and 14: Based on material supplied courtesy of Keep Britain Tidy Schools Research Project, Brighton Polytechnic, Science Unit 2, Glass

Figure 17: From Managing Water Abstraction, supplied courtesy of the Environment Agency

Figure 26: S. H. Schneider and R. D. Dennett, ‘Climatic barriers to long-term energy growth’, Ambio, vol. 4, no. 2, 1975, reproduced by permission of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

Figure 27: From material supplied courtesy of the World Coal Institute, Richmond-upon-Thames, England

Figures 28–32: Based on material in ‘Focus on Combined Heat & Power’, Energy Management, Issue 7, 1988

Figure 51: Based on material in Renewable Energy, Issue 6, January 1989, Department of the Environment

Figure 52: Reproduced from Open University, Course PT272, ‘Environmental Control and Public Health’, with permission

Figure 54: The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, Report No. 1, HMSO 1971, reproduced by permission of HMSO

Figure 55: Coal and Energy Quarterly, no.7, Winter 1975, reproduced with permission

Figure 58: R. Ashman, ‘Air pollution control’ in A. Porteous (ed.), Developments in Environmental Control and Public Health, Applied Science Publishers, 1979, reproduced by permission of the Publisher

Figures 60–62: From material supplied courtesy of WWF-UK, Godalming, England

Figure 64: L. Pringle, Ecology: Science of Survival, Macmillan Co., 1971, reproduced by permission of the Publisher

Figures 66 and 67: Open University, Course PT272, ‘Environmental Control and Public Health’, reproduced by permission of the Open University

Figure 79: Energy Conservation, HMSO, 1974, reproduced by permission of HMSO

Figure 92: Based on material supplied courtesy of CEGB Research, September 1988, with permission of the Editor

Figure 93: Plant portrait of Allington Quarry. From material supplied courtesy of Lentjes GmbH, Germany

Figure 100: A. Tucker, The Toxic Metals, Pan/Ballantine, 1972 reproduced by permission of the Publisher

Figure 103: W. Burns, Noise and Man, 2nd edition, John Murray, 1973, reproduced by permission of the Publisher

Figure 104: Based on data from G. Borgstrom, Too Many, Macmillan, 1967

Figure 107: Courtesy of Motherwell Bridge Engineering, PO Box 4, Logans Road, Motherwell, UK

Figure 115: Courtesy of Warwickshire County Council, Coping with Landfill Gas report, no. 4/4, November 1988, County Surveyors Society

Figure 116: Courtesy of Warwickshire County Council, Coping with Landfill Gas report, no. 4/4, November 1988, County Surveyors Society

Figure 119: Waste Management Paper 26B, produced by The Stationery Office, reproduced by permission of TSO

Figure 128: From material supplied courtesy of Bollegraaf UK Ltd, West Bromwich, England

Figure 129: From material supplied courtesy of Jonathan Clarke, of TiTech Visionsort Ltd

Figure 142: H. R. Warman, ‘World energy prospects and North-Sea oil’, Coal and Energy Quarterly, no. 6, Autumn 1975 reproduced with permission

Figure on page 494: Based on P. Chapman, Fuel’s Paradise, Penguin, 1975, is reprinted by permission of Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd

Figure 145: From material supplied courtesy of INCPEN, Reading, England

Figure 154: J. Claerbout, ‘Material and Energy recycling of PVC: Case Studies’, in Karl J. Thomé-Kosmeinsky (ed.), Recycling International, vol. 3, reproduced by permission of EF-Verlag

Figures 180 and 197: From material supplied courtesy of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, UK

Figure 184: Land, Air and Sea – Research in Man’s Environment, NERC, 1975, reproduced by permission of the Natural Environment Research Council

Figure 199: Courtesy of Blue Circle Group

Figures 201 and 203: From material supplied courtesy of Steve Eminton, of letsrecycle.com

Figure 208: Reproduced from K. Knox, Chapter 4, in A. Porteous (ed.), Hazardous Wastes Management Handbook, Applied Science Publishers, 1985, reproduced by permission of the Publisher

Figure 210: Reproduced from Metropolitan Water Division, A Brief Description of the Undertaking, 1973, reproduced by permission of the Thames Water Authority

Figure on page 763: From material supplied courtesy of Wavegen (a Voith and Siemens Company), Inverness, Scotland

Phillip Russell and Hannah Rogers, of West Sussex County Council Waste Management Services, for their valued contribution to the entries for Hazardous Household Wastes, and Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment.

Veolia Environmental Services, United Kingdom, for permission granted to publish emission data from the Energy-from-Waste Plants in Sheffield and Portsmouth.

Whilst every effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright material, in a few cases this has proved impossible and we take this opportunity to offer our apologies to any copyright holders whose rights we may have unwittingly infringed.

Abbreviations

AC | Activated carbon
ADAS | Agricultural Development and Advisory Service
ADI | Acceptable daily intake
A/G ratio | Arithmetic–geometric ratio
AOX | Adsorbable organically-bound halogens
ATU | Allythiourea
BAF | Biological aerated filter
BATNEEC | Best Available Technique Not Entailing Excessive Cost
BHC | Benzene hexachloride
BMWP | Biological Monitoring Working Party
BOD | Biochemical oxygen demand (BODx signifies measurement over x days)
BP | British Petroleum
BPEO | Best Practicable Environmental Option
BPM | Best Practicable Means
BS | British Standard (i.e. a standard set by the British Standards Institute (BSI))
BSE | Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
BSI | British Standards Institute
CEFIC | European Chemical Industry Council
CFRR | Catalytic flow reversal reactor
Ci | Curie
CNG | Compressed natural gas
CNL | Corrected noise level
COC | Committee on the Carcinogenity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment
COE | Catalytic oxidation of effluents
COMEAP | Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants
COP | Coefficients of Performance
CV | Calorific Value (units MJ/kg: MJ/Nm³)
CWAO | Catalytic wet air oxidation
DANI | Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland
dB | Decibel
dB(A) | Decibels A-scale
DDE | Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene
DDT | Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DDVP | Dichlorvos 2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate
DES | Diethylostilboestrol
DETR | Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions
DIPNs | Diisopropylnaphthalenes
DMT | Dimethyl terephthate
DNA | Deoxyribonucleic acid
DO | Dissolved oxygen
DOA | Dioctyladipate
DRE | Destruction and removal efficiency
EA | Environmental Assessment/Environment Agency
EALs | Environmental assessment levels
EB | Environment burden
EC | European Commission
ECF | Elemental chlorine free
EDTA | Ethylenediamine tetraacetate disodium salt or ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid
EEZs | Economic exclusion zones
EfW | Energy from Waste
EG | Ethylene glycol
EMAS | Eco-Management and audit scheme
EMS | Environmental Management System
EPA | Environmental Protection Act (1990)/Environmental Protection Agency (USA)
EPAQS | Expert Panel on Air Quality Standards
EPNdB | Effective perceived noise level
ER | Electroremediation
ERTS | Earth Resources Technology Satellite
ES | Environmental statement
ESA | Environmental Services Association
EU | European Union
FBR | Fluidized bed biofilm reactor
FID | Flame ionization detector
FMA | Forest Management Association
FMC | Field moisture capacity
GAC | Granulated activated carbon
GC | Gas chromatography
GHG | Greenhouse gas
GMO | Genetically modified organisms
GNP | Gross National Product
HACCP | Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
HAS | Hygiene Assessment System
HGV | Heavy goods vehicle
HS&E | Health, safety and environmental
HSE | Health and Safety Executive
Hz | Hertz
ICRCL | Interdepartmental Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land
ICRP | International Committee on Radiation Protection
IMO | International Maritime Organization
IPC | Integrated Pollution Control
IPPC | Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control
IWC | International Whaling Commission
JVC | Joint Venture Company
K | Kelvin
L₁₀ | Ten per cent level (road traffic noise index)
LAWDC | Local Authority Waste Disposal Company
LCA | Life Cycle Analysis
LC₅₀ | Lethal concentration (50 per cent survival)
LD₅₀ | Lethal dose (50 per cent survival)
LEL | Lower explosive limit
LFG | Landfill gas
LPG | Liquefied petroleum gas
MAC | Maximum allowable concentration
MAFF | Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food
MHD | Magnohydrodynamic generator
MHS | Meat Hygiene Service
MLVSS | Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids
MOX | Mixed oxide fuel
MPN | Most probable number
MSW | Municipal solid waste
MUF | Material unaccounted for
NFFO | Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation
NIC | National insurance charges
NNI | Noise and number index
NRA | National Rivers Authority
NRCan | Natural Resources Canada
OECD | Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OEL | Occupational exposure levels
OTMS | Over Thirty Month Slaughter
OVS | Official Veterinary Surgeon/Official Veterinary Services
PAH | Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon
PAN | Peroxyacetylnitrate
PCBs | Polychlorinated biphenyls
PCTs | Polychlorinated terphenyls
PET | Polyethylene terephthalate
PNAs | Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
PNdB | Perceived noise decibels
POHC | Principal organic hazardous constituents
pphm | Parts per hundred million
ppm | Parts per million
PRNs | Packaging Recovery Notes
PTFE | Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon)
PVC | Polyvinyl chloride
PWR | Pressurised water reactor
RBE | Relative biological effectiveness
REC | Regional Electricity Company
RCEP | Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
RIVPACS | River Invertebrate Prediction and Classification Scheme
RME | Rape methyl ester
R/P ratio | Reserves–production ratio
SBM | Specified bovine material
SCP | Single-cell protein
SCWO | Supercritical water oxidation
SD | Sustainable development
SEPA | Scottish Environment Protection Agency
SERM | Safety and Environmental Risk Management
SI | Système international d’unités (International System of Units)
SIDT | Solid insulation distribution transformer
SMD | Soil moisture deficit
SOAEFD | Scottish Office Agriculture, Environment and Fisheries Department
SRC | Short rotation coppicing
STP | Standard temperature and pressure
SWORD | Surveillance of Work Related and Occupational Respiratory Disease
TCD | Thermal conductivity detector
TCDD | Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
TCF | Totally chlorine free
TDI | Total daily ingestion
TEQ | Toxic equivalent
TLV | Threshold limit value
TN | Total nitrogen
TNI | Traffic noise index
TSE | Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy
TUPE | The Transfer of Undertakings and (Protection of Employment) Regulations (1981)
UDC | Under-developed country
UEL | Upper explosive limit
UN | United Nations
UNCLOS | United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
WDA | Waste Disposal Authority
WDC | Waste Disposal Company
WHO | World Health Organization
WLM | Working level month
WML | Waste Management Licence
WOAD | Welsh Office Agriculture Department

A

Abatement

Reduction or lessening (of pollution) or doing away with a nuisance, by legislative or technical means, or both.

Absolute temperature scale

TEMPERATURE.

Absorption¹

The taking up, usually, of a liquid or gas into the body of another material (the absorbent). Thus, for instance, an air pollutant may be removed by absorption in a suitable solvent. Not to be confused with ADSORPTION. This definition is most appropriate to sound absorption, for example by a porous material, and should be distinguished from sound insulation.

Absorption²

The taking up of radiant energy by a material it encounters or passes through. This can be the basis of measuring the concentration of a substance or identifying a number of substances. This definition is more like attenuation of energy, at least with regard to the transmission of energy. ATTENUATION.

Absorption chillers

District heating (DH) can also be used as the energy source for absorption chillers. The benefits of encouraging potential consumers to install absorption chillers for their chilled water and air conditioning requirements are two-fold. Firstly absorption systems use no CFCs or HFCs, so are environmentally friendly; secondly they have very few moving parts and are consequently relatively easy to maintain.

The chilling effect is produced in the absorption cycle by the evaporation of a fluid – the refrigerant – in the lower pressure side of a closed system. The refrigerant vapour is recovered by the absorbing action of a second fluid – the absorbent. In the higher pressure side of the system the absorbent containing the dissolved refrigerant is boiled, the refrigerant vapour and the absorbent being returned to the lower pressure side for further use.

Indirectly fired machines can use medium temperature hot water or steam in the range 104 °C to 130 °C, making them ideal for connection to the DH network.

Absorption chillers also produce a large benefit to the DH operator, in that they increase the summer demand for heat, thus providing a balanced loading over as much of the year as possible, to utilize the available energy efficiently. If a building’s winter heating and summer cooling requirements can be met using the district heating network, it will greatly enhance the efficiency of the scheme and increase annual revenues.

Abstraction

The permanent or temporary withdrawal of water from any source of supply, so that it is no longer part of the resources of the locality.

Acceptable daily intake (ADI)

The acceptable daily intake of a chemical is the daily intake which, during an entire lifetime, appears to be without risk on the basis of all known facts at the time. It is expressed in milligrams of chemical per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg). ADIs may be unconditional, conditional, or temporary.

Accuracy

The nearness of a measurement to the true value of the thing being measured. cf. PRECISION.

Acid

A substance which, in solution in water, splits up to a greater or lesser extent into ions, including hydrogen IONS. Strong acids are those which split up to a large degree; they are usually corrosive. Acids neutralize ALKALIS with the formation of SALTS. Acids have a multitude of industrial uses, e.g. the ‘pickling’ (cleaning) of steel, preparation of copper components (e.g. copper printed circuit boards), polishing/etching of glass, selective extraction of minerals or recovery from waste, descaling, the manufacture of ‘nylon’ through the medium of polymeric AMIDES (e.g. acetic acid, CH₃COOH, is used in the production of cellulose acetate). They are also used to adjust the pH value of solutions.

Acid dewpoint

As commonly used, this term applies to the temperature at which dilute acid (e.g. sulphuric acid) appears as a condensate (liquid droplets) when a flue gas containing sulphur trioxide and water vapour is cooled below saturation temperature. This value is related to the moisture and sulphur trioxide content of the flue gas. Therefore, gases must be released to atmosphere well above this temperature otherwise substantial corrosion will take place in the stack. The corrosion of many combustion installations especially if fired on heavy fuel oil is due to the flue gases being cooled below the acid dewpoint.

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