Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

About the Author

Chapter 1: Principles of Combustion

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Combustion Basics

1.3 Physical Gas Laws

1.4 Stoichiometric and Thermodynamic Considerations

1.5 Ignition

1.6 Flammability and Flammable Mixtures

1.7 Gas Mixtures

Chapter 2: Overview of Flares and Gas Flaring Practices

2.1 General Description

2.2 Types of Flares

2.3 Flare System Components and Design Features

2.4 Flare Regulations

2.5 Flare Enforcement Actions

2.6 Major Suppliers

2.7 Flare Terminology

Chapter 3: Overview of Disposal Systems and Relief Headers

3.1 Blowdown Systems

3.2 Disposal System Components

3.3 Quench Drum

3.4 Seals and the Seal Drum

3.5 Knockout Drums

Chapter 4: Flare Types

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Hydrogen Assisted Flares

4.3 Steam Assisted Flares

4.4 Efficiency and Smoking Flares

Chapter 5: Remote Sensing and Monitoring

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Remote Sensing Dial Technology

5.3 Experience

Chapter 6: Practical Considerations and Emissions Calculations

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Sizing Considerations

6.3 General Permit Obligations

6.4 Monitoring System Requirements

6.5 Marama Guidelines for Calculating Flare Emissions

6.6 TCEQ New Source Review (NSR) Emission Calculations

6.7 U.S. EPA’s AP-42

6.8 Calculations Versus Measurement

Chapter 7: Case Studies

7.1 Introduction

7.2 The Exxon Chalmette Refinery

7.3 The BP Texas City Refinery

7.4 Valero Tennessee Refinery

Appendix

Properties Data

Industrial Gas Flaring Practices

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Preface

It has been more than 25 years since I first tackled this subject in publications and lectures. Through the years I have worked with clients in sizing and selecting flares for different applications. When properly used and maintained, flare gas systems can be a safe and reliable technology for protecting upstream process operations from over-pressurization events, in controlling emissions stemming from emergency releases, and in destroying hazardous gaseous waste streams. However, when misused and/or not carefully maintained or operated, flaring practices can be a significant source of toxic emissions that adversely impact on air quality. Further to this, there are oftentimes misconceptions and misrepresentations on flaring efficiencies. This has led to underreporting of releases of toxins placing communities at risk from chronic exposures to various hydrocarbons, criteria air pollutants, and particulate matter.

Flares are widely used throughout the oil recovery and refining, gas recovery and processing, and petrochemical industry sectors to manage waste gases and as a means of safely controlling the over pressurization of upstream process units. But both industry and environmental statutes concerning the regulation of flares characterize flaring as a safe practice that is capable of controlling air emissions to high level of efficiency (typically 98+ % destruction reduction efficiency (DRE) of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)). In the United States, flaring operations seem to be conducted far more frequently than systems were originally intended to operate. Further, aging refineries and petrochemical plants across the country have given low priority to the critical maintenance and replacement of flare gas system components. The consequences have been far greater emissions than are generally reported along with serious accidents that have caused loss of lives and extensive damages to facility infrastructure and community property. An examination of industry practices shows that the claims often made by industry and in the U.S. EPA’s AP-42 that flaring operations control emissions in excess of 98% are not accurate. A review of the literature, enforcement actions and recent remote sensing measurements support that flaring practices are far more polluting and unsafe than industry proponents argue. Most recent studies reported by various industry studies shows that even when burning very clean gases such as methane, toxic VOCs are created because of the complex stoichiometry of combustion.

These negatives should not be the basis for eliminating this technology. Flare gas operations are unquestionably critical to the safe operations of high pressure operations involving flammable and toxic waste components. However, their efficient and safe operation requires that the owner/operator apply vigilance to ensuring that flares operate within an optimum performance regime, be well maintained, and that operators are appropriately trained and certified.

This volume is intended as technical reference for engineers, technicians, and laypersons that have environmental responsibilities or interests in refinery and chemical plant operations. The information contained herein is the result of reviewing the general literature on flaring options and technologies, reviewing industry and U.S. EPA published studies, from data gathered through Freedom of Information Act inquiries through some state regulatory agencies, and from examining some of the practices of certain refinery operations where information has been accessible.

The information presented in this volume should not be used for design purposes. There are a number of companies that have decades of experience designing flare gas systems and tackling industry problems which require such systems. These companies are the best technical resources for specifying, designing and establishing operational procedures for facility-specific flare systems. While some company names are cited in the volume, these should not be construed as endorsements. Identification of specific vendors is provided in some instances only for the purpose of alerting the reader to other resources for more in-depth information and data on performance, warrantees on flare designs, and operational experience. Any omission of noting major vendors and suppliers of flare systems is not intentional and should not be viewed any other way.

This volume does include discussions of case studies which focus on poor practices that have resulted in significant releases of hazardous materials and or caused infrastructure damage and loss of life. These case studies are not presented for the purpose of drawing attention to any particular company, but rather to provide examples from which lessons aimed at improved environmental and safety performance can be learned.

The author wishes to express gratitude the staff of N&P Limited for reviewing the technical content of this publication and in providing an editorial overview. I also wish to thank the KLM Technology Group, and in particular Johor Bahru of Malaysia for providing some technical materials for my review. Finally, a heartfelt thank you is extended to the publisher for its fine production of this book.

Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff, Ph.D.

About the Author

Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff is a chemical engineer with nearly 40 years of industry, applied research and international business development experiences. He specializes in pollution prevention and responsible care practices. He has contributed to environmental policy development in several countries through various international donor sponsored programs, including those in Ukraine, Nigeria, Albania, and Jordan. He is the co-founder of No-Pollution Enterprises, Ltd. which is a company that supports environmental litigation work and promotes responsible industry investments into cleaner production technologies. Dr. Cheremisinoff is the author, co-author or editor of more than 160 technical books and has contributed extensively to the industrial press as author of numerous state-of-the-art reviews and book chapters. He received his B.Sc., M.Sc, and Ph.D. degrees in chemical engineering from Clarkson College of Technology.

Chapter 1

Principles of Combustion

1.1 Introduction

Flaring is defined as the controlled burning of off gases in the course of routine oil and gas or chemical manufacturing operations. This burning or combustion is accomplished at the end of a flare stack or boom.

Combustion is often described as a simple chemical reaction in which oxygen from the atmosphere reacts rapidly with a substance, generating heat. But it is in fact a very complex series of chemical reactions. The most common organic compounds are hydrocarbons, which are composed of carbon and hydrogen. The simplest hydrocarbon is methane, each molecule of which consists of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. It is the first compound in the family known as alkanes. The physical properties of alkanes change with increasing number of carbon atoms in the molecule, those with one to four being gases, those with five to ten being volatile liquids, those with 11 to 18 being heavier fuel oils and those with 19 to 40 being lubricating oils. Longer carbon chain hydrocarbons are tars and waxes. The first ten alkanes are:

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Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

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Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

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