Emerging Dairy
Processing Technologies

Opportunities for the Dairy Industry

Edited by

Nivedita Datta

College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Peggy M. Tomasula

Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor, PA, USA

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Emerging dairy processing technologies : opportunities for the dairy industry / edited by Nivedita Datta, Peggy M. Tomasula.

               pages cm

     Includes bibliographical references and index.

     ISBN 978-1-118-56062-4 (cloth)

1. Dairy products industry–Technological innovations.   2. Dairy processing.   3. Pasteurization.   4. Milk–Pasteurization.   I. Datta, Nivedita, editor.   II. Tomasula, Peggy M., editor.

     SF250.5.E44 2015

     637–dc23

2014050138

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Cover image: Cheese blocks © iStock.com/urbancow; Sheep’s Milk Cheese © iStock.com/alexandrumagurean; Milk Bottling © iStock.com/Jason Lugo

Set in 9.5/11.5pt TimesTenLTstd-Roman by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India.

1   2015

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series

List of Contributors

Preface

1 Crossflow Microfiltration in the Dairy Industry
Peggy M. Tomasula and Laetitia M. Bonnaillie

1.1 Introduction

1.2 MF Principles and Models

1.3 Applications of MF

1.4 Membrane Modifications to Increase Performance

1.5 Microsieves

1.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Disclaimer

References

2 Novel Thermal Methods in Dairy Processing
Vijay K. Mishra and Lata Ramchandran

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Ohmic Heating

2.3 Microwave Heating (MWH) and Radio Frequency Heating (RFH)

2.4 Aspects of Microbiological Safety of Dairy Products

2.5 Conclusions

References

3 High-Pressure Processing of Milk and Dairy Products
Daniela D. Voigt, Alan L. Kelly, and Thom Huppertz

3.1 Introduction to High-Pressure Processing

3.2 Effects of High Pressure on Food Constituents: Basic Considerations

3.3 Effects of High Pressure on the Constituents of Milk

3.4 Effects of High Pressure on Dairy Microbiology

3.5 HP Treatment and Cheese

3.6 High-Pressure Processing and Yoghurt

3.7 High-Pressure Processing and Functional Dairy Products

3.8 Ice Cream

3.9 Conclusions and Perspectives for the Dairy Industry

References

4 Applications of High-Pressure Homogenization and Microfluidization for Milk and Dairy Products
John Tobin, Sinead P. Heffernan, Daniel M. Mulvihill, Thom Huppertz, and Alan L. Kelly

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Emulsion Stability and Instability

4.3 Effects of High-Pressure Homogenization and Microfluidization on Milk Constituents

4.4 Applications of HPH and Microfluidization in the Manufacture of Dairy Products

4.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives

References

5 Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF) Processing of Milk and Dairy Products
Fernando Sampedro and Dolores Rodrigo

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Application of PEF for Milk Pasteurization

5.3 Application of PEF to Dairy Products

5.4 Commercial Applications of PEF for Milk Pasteurization

5.5 Conclusions

References

6 High Power Ultrasound Processing in Milk and Dairy Products
Bogdan Zisu and Jayani Chandrapala

6.1 Introduction: Ultrasound in Dairy

6.2 Ultrasonic Equipment

6.3 Effects of Sonication on Milk Fat: Homogenization and Creaming

6.4 Degassing and Foam Reduction

6.5 Thermosonication to Reduce Microbial Load

6.6 Ultrasound Assisted Filtration

6.7 Sonocrystallization of Lactose from Whey

6.8 Solubility of Rehydrated Powders

6.9 Effects of sonication on Milk and Casein Systems

6.10 Effects of Sonication on the Physical and Functional Properties of Whey Proteins

6.11 Sensory Characteristics of Sonicated Milk and Whey

6.12 Conclusions

References

7 Ultraviolet and Pulsed Light Technologies in Dairy Processing
Nivedita Datta, Poornimaa Harimurugan, and Enzo A. Palombo

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Basic Principles of UV Processing

7.3 Available UV Treatment Equipment and Their Operation

7.4 Effects of UV Treatment on Microorganisms

7.5 Commercial Developments

7.6 Other Light Processing Technique using UV light

7.7 Basic Principle of PL Technology

7.8 Effects of PL on Microorganisms

7.9 Commercial Developments

7.10 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

8 Carbon Dioxide: An Alternative Processing Method for Milk
Laetitia M. Bonnaillie and Peggy M. Tomasula

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Physicochemical Principles

8.3 Microbiological Action of High-Pressure and Supercritical CO₂

8.4 High-Pressure CO₂ Treatment of Milk and Dairy Foods

8.5 Low-Pressure CO₂ Injection (Carbonation) to Extend the Shelf Life of Fluid Milk and Soft Dairy Products

8.6 Other Dairy-Related Applications for CO₂

8.7 Regulatory Status

Acknowledgements

References

9 Non-Thermal Pasteurization of Milk Using CHIEF Technology
Shaobo Deng, Paul Chen, Yun Li, Xiaochen Ma, Yanling Cheng, Xiangyang Lin, Lloyd Metzger, and Roger Ruan

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Principles

9.3 Equipment and Process Flow

9.4 Effects of the Process on Microorganisms and Quality

9.5 Other Uses of CHIEF Technology

9.6 Future Development

Acknowledgements

References

10 Bacteriocins of Food Grade Lactic Acid Bacteria in Hurdle Technology for Milk and Dairy Products
John A. Renye, Jr and George A. Somkuti

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Bacteriocin Structure and Production

10.3 Application of Bacteriocins in Dairy Foods

10.4 Bacteriocins as Components of Hurdle Technology

10.5 Bacteriocins in Hurdle Technology for Dairy Food Safety

10.6 Conclusions

References

11 Leveraging the Beneficial Compounds of Organic and Pasture Milk
Michael H. Tunick, Diane L. Van Hekken, and Moushumi Paul

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Regulatory Status

11.3 Bioactive Compounds in Milk

11.4 Variations in Biologically Active Compounds

11.5 The Future

Disclaimer

References

Index

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Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Begin Reading

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4

Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.6

Figure 6.7

Figure 6.8

Figure 6.9

Figure 6.10

Figure 6.11

Figure 6.12

Figure 6.13

Figure 6.14

Figure 6.15

Figure 6.16

Figure 6.17

Figure 7.1

Figure 7.2

Figure 7.3

Figure 7.4

Figure 7.5

Figure 9.1

Figure 9.2

Figure 9.3

Figure 9.4

Figure 9.5

Figure 9.6

Figure 9.7

List of Tables

Table 1.1

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Table 2.5

Table 2.6

Table 2.7

Table 3.1

Table 3.3

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Table 6.1

Table 7.1

Table 7.2

Table 7.3

Table 8.1

Table 8.2

Table 9.1

Table 9.2

Table 9.3

Table 9.4

Table 9.5

Table 10.1

Table 10.2

Table 11.1

About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series

The Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) is the leading qualifying body for food professionals in Europe and the only professional organisation in the United Kingdom concerned with all aspects of food science and technology. Its qualifications are internationally recognised as a sign of proficiency and integrity in the industry. Competence, integrity, and serving the public benefit lie at the heart of the IFST philosophy. IFST values the many elements that contribute to the efficient and responsible supply, manufacture, and distribution of safe, wholesome, nutritious, and affordable foods, with due regard for the environment, animal welfare, and the rights of consumers.

IFST Advances in Food Science is a series of books dedicated to the most important and popular topics in food science and technology, highlighting major developments across all sectors of the global food industry. Each volume is a detailed and in-depth edited work, featuring contributions by recognized international experts, and which focuses on new developments in the field. Taken together, the series forms a comprehensive library of the latest food science research and practice, and provides valuable insights into the food-processing techniques that are essential to the understanding and development of this rapidly evolving industry.

The IFST Advances series is edited by Dr Brijesh Tiwari, Senior Research Officer in the Department of Food Biosciences at the Teagasc Food Research Centre, Dublin, Ireland.

Current and forthcoming titles in the IFST series

Emerging Dairy Processing Technologies, edited by Nivedita Datta and Peggy Tomasula

Emerging Technologies in Meat Processing, edited by Enda Cummins and James Lyng

Seafood Processing: Technology, Quality and Safety, edited by Ioannis S. Boziaris

Nutraceutical and Functional Food Processing Technology, edited by Joyce Irene Boye

List of Contributors

Laetitia M. Bonnaillie, Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor, PA, USA, Wyndmoor, PA, USA

Jayani Chandrapala, Advanced Food Systems Research Unit, College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Paul Chen, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering and Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA

Yanling Cheng, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering and Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA

Nivedita Datta, College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Shaobo Deng, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering and Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA

Poornimaa Harimurugan, College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Sinead P. Heffernan, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland

Thom Huppertz, NIZO food research, Ede, The Netherlands

Alan L. Kelly, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland

Yun Li, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering and Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA

Xiangyang Lin, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering and Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA

Xiaochen Ma, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering and Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA

Lloyd Metzger, Dairy Foods Research Center and Department of Dairy Science, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA

Vijay K. Mishra, College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Daniel M. Mulvihill, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland

Enzo A. Palombo, Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Technology, Swinburne University of Technology, Australia

Moushumi Paul, Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor, PA, USA, Wyndmoor, PA, USA

Lata Ramchandran, College of Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

John A. Renye, Jr, Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor, PA, USA, Wyndmoor, PA, USA

Dolores Rodrigo, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA-CSIC), Paterna (Valencia), Spain

Roger Ruan, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering and Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA

Fernando Sampedro, Center for Animal Health and Food Safety (CAHFS), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, USA

George A. Somkuti, Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor, PA, USA, Wyndmoor, PA, USA

John Tobin, Moorepark Food Research Centre, Fermoy, County Cork, Ireland

Peggy M. Tomasula, Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor, PA, USA, Wyndmoor, PA, USA

Michael H. Tunick, Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor, PA, USA, Wyndmoor, PA, USA

Diane L. Van Hekken, Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Regional Research Center, Wyndmoor, PA, USA, Wyndmoor, PA, USA

Daniela D. Voigt, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Ireland

Bogdan Zisu, School of Applied Sciences, College of Science, Engineering and Health, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Preface

Milk and milk products have attracted consumer attention as functional foods due to the abundance of bioactive compounds, such as proteins, peptides, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals, found in a single serving. Milk and milk products have been shown to support healthy bones, teeth and muscles; may reduce the risk of high blood pressure, stroke and cardiovascular disease; and may control type 2 diabetes and obesity. A little known fact is that a serving of milk provides 100% of the adult daily requirement of Vitamin B12, about 30% of the adult daily requirement of Vitamin B2 and appreciable amounts of the other B vitamins.

Even though consumption of milk products such as cheese, yogurt and ice cream continues to grow, consumption of fluid milk has declined in recent years, with many consumers claiming that its taste and flavour pale in comparison to those of other beverages on the market today. In addition to claiming some health and nutritional benefits, these beverages offer convenience, taste and quench thirst. Varieties of milk-based products could be offered to cater to different consumer needs if they had a longer refrigerated or stable shelf life. High temperature, short time (HTST) pasteurization is used in milk processing to improve the microbial safety of milk and extend its refrigerated shelf life but its use in creation of specialty milk beverages or products is not always suitable for creation of extended shelf life (ESL) or shelf stable products.

Emerging Dairy Processing Technologies: Opportunities for the Dairy Industry presents state of the art research and information on the alternative technologies that have some potential to be used, alone or in conjunction with another processing technology such as traditional thermal pasteurization or sterilization processes, for ESL or shelf stable products. These technologies include: pulsed electric fields, high hydrostatic pressure, high pressure homogenization, ohmic and microwave heating, microfiltration, high power ultrasound, ultraviolet and pulsed light processing, carbon dioxide processing and application of bacteriocins produced from food grade lactic acid bacteria as components of hurdle technology for milk and dairy products or post processing milk preservation. Because of their growing importance to consumers, the additional bioactive compounds that may be found in milk from pasture-fed cows due to their dietary regime and other factors are described; the many health benefits they confer and their stability during processing are also discussed.

The primary focus of this book is on the effects of the alternative technologies on milk and milk product safety but the additional effects on their quality are also discussed. In fact, it is likely that some of the technologies may never find application in pasteurization or sterilization treatments but are worthy of consideration because they may induce physical changes of milk components that can be beneficial for the development of novel milk and dairy products and new ingredients. Some of the affected attributes are also covered in this book.

Information on alternative milk processing techniques and their impact on the physical, chemical and functional properties of milk and dairy products is scattered throughout the literature. Emerging Dairy Processing Technologies: Opportunities for the Dairy Industry consolidates the available information from various research groups into one place, which will provide significant benefits to the end users, including the food and dairy industries.

Nivedita Datta

Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia

Peggy Tomasula

USDA/ARS/ERRC, Wyndmoor, USA

1

Crossflow Microfiltration in the Dairy Industry

Peggy M. Tomasula and Laetitia M. Bonnaillie

Dairy and Functional Foods Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service/Eastern Regional Research Center, USA

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Membrane Types

Since their introduction in the 1960s, pressure driven, crossflow or tangential filtration membrane technologies have become important in the food processing industries. The dairy industry currently uses crossflow membrane technologies for applications such as fractionation of the casein and whey proteins, whey protein concentration, demineralization of whey, removal of somatic cells and bacteria from milk, and milk concentration to save transport costs (Pouliot, 2008; Gésan-Guiziou, 2010). Membranes are also used alone or with the evaporation step in the manufacture of milk powders, and are increasingly being used in the development of new dairy-based beverages, fermented milk beverages and yogurt products. They are also finding a place in clean-in-place (CIP) processes to recover cleaning agents or to recover water used in processing (Alvarez et al., 2007; Luo et al., 2012).

Four types of membranes are used by the dairy industry: reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), ultrafiltration (UF) and microfiltration (MF). The operating parameters for crossflow filtration membranes are shown in Figure 1.1. The pressure-driven feed, with flow rate, QF, flows through the membrane channel parallel to the surface of the membrane. The applied pressure, PF, must overcome the osmotic pressure, πF, of the feed solution (Cheryan, 1998). The crossflow velocity (CFV), the velocity of the feed as it flows parallel to the membrane through the channel, has a sweeping effect that minimizes build-up of the feed particles on the membrane surface.

Some of the feed stream containing the smaller molecules flows through the walls of the membrane leaving as the permeate, with flow rate, QP, and pressure PP. QP is often reported as the permeate flux, J, defined as the volume of permeate per unit membrane surface area per time. PP has a gauge pressure reading of 0.0 if the stream is open to the atmosphere. The remainder of the stream, called the retentate, with flow rate, QR, and pressure, PR, flows out the end of the membrane. This stream may be entirely or partially recycled back to the feed. The size distribution of the particles in the permeate and the retentate depend on the pore size distribution of the membrane. The pressure-driving force is reported in terms of the transmembrane pressure (TMP) and is given by:

Figure 1.1 Parameters for crossflow filtration. Cross-section of a crossflow microfiltration housing for multiple membrane tubes shown.

(1.1)

Table 1.1 shows the sizes of the milk nutrients, somatic cells and species that may populate milk, such as bacteria, spores, yeasts and moulds, and the corresponding types of membranes that would be used to separate them from smaller milk components. The wide ranges in sizes for bacteria and spores reported in account for their possible lengths and widths (Garcia 2013). The operating pressure ranges and the separation technologies that compete with the particular membrane type are also listed. Particles smaller than the rating or pore or cut-off size leave in the permeate stream, particles larger than the pore size remain in the retentate. For RO and NF, the membranes are rated by salt rejection standards defined by the manufacturer. UF membranes are rated by a molecular weight cut-off size (MWCO) and MF membranes are rated by pore size.

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