Table of Contents

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Preface

The Goals of This Book

The Fifth Edition

Organization of the Text

Comprehensive Online Ancillary Resources

Acknowledgments

1: Introduction to Corrections

Introduction

Current Trends

Philosophies of Punishment

Outlooks on Corrections

The Role of Criminological Theories

Corrections Programs

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

2: A Brief History of Punishments and Corrections

Introduction

Early History

The Age of Enlightenment, the State, and Criminal Sanctions

Prison Reform and Penitentiaries

The Pennsylvania System Versus the Auburn System

Penitentiary Reform in the Nineteenth Century

From Rehabilitative Ideal to Justice Model

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

3: Sentencing and Criminal Sanctions

Introduction

Sentencing: Who Decides?

Sentencing: What Are the Choices?

Sentencing: How Are Decisions Made?

Sentencing Strategies

After the Verdict

Appeals

Contemporary Trends in Sentencing and Some Thoughts on the Future

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

Cases Cited

4: Probation and Community Corrections

Introduction

The History of Probation

The Administration of Probation

Violations of Probation

Probation Services Today

The Role of Community Corrections

Types of Intermediate Sanctions

Issues in Community Corrections

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

Cases Cited

5: Jails and Detention Facilities

Introduction

Contemporary Jail and Detention Facilities

Jails and Women

Jail Functions

The Design of Jails

Jail Administration

Jail Employees

Major Jail Issues

Other Local Detention Facilities

Trends in Contemporary Jails

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

6: Institutional Corrections

Introduction

Prisoner Management

Prison Types and Functions

Prison Labor

Federal Prison System

State Prison Systems

The Prison of the Future

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

Cases Cited

7: Jail and Prison Inmates

Introduction

Characteristics of Jail Inmates

Characteristics of Prison Inmates

Jail and Prison Culture

Violence in Correctional Institutions

Inmate Issues

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

Case Cited

8: Special Needs Inmates

Introduction

Incarcerated Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults

Inmates with Medical Needs

Inmates with Mental Illness and Mental Health Problems

Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgendered Inmates

Unauthorized Immigrants and the US Correctional System

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

Cases Cited

9: Parole and Prisoner Reentry

Introduction

Origins of Parole

The Administration of Parole

Violations of Parole

Prisoner Reentry

Parole and Prisoner Reentry Today

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

Cases Cited

10: Careers in Corrections

Introduction

Institutional Corrections: Correctional Officers and Counselors

Community-Based Corrections: Probation and Parole Officers

Community-Based Corrections: Counselors and Other Workers

Workplace Challenges

The Trend Toward Professionalization

Finding a Job

Internships and Cooperative Education

Job Prospects

Correctional Employee Ethics

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

11: The Administration of Corrections Programs

Introduction

Administration and Management

Overview of Bureaucracy

Leadership Styles

Issues Facing Corrections Managers

Modern Management Tasks

Inmate Management

Trends in Correctional Management

Administrative Ethics

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

Case Cited

12: Corrections Law and Inmate Litigation

Introduction

The History of Inmate Litigation

Inmate Litigation and Postconviction Relief

Laws and Litigation Dealing With Probation and Parole

Issues Raised by Corrections Lawsuits

Recent Trends in Inmate Litigation

Capital Punishment and Prisoner Litigation

The Future of Litigation

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

Cases Cited

13: Gender Issues in Corrections

Introduction

Nature and Extent of Female Criminality

Explaining Female Offenders

Institutional Corrections for Female Offenders

Operating Women's Correctional Facilities

Women and Alternatives to Incarceration

Women's Correctional Issues

Women in the Correctional Workplace

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

Case Cited

14: Race, Ethnicity, and Corrections

Introduction

Arrest Disparities

Sentencing Disparities

Confinement Disparities

Race, Ethnicity, and Prison Life

Probation and Parole Disparities

Race and the Death Penalty

Race and Corrections: Final Comments

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

Cases Cited

15: The Future of Corrections

Introduction

Future Correctional Philosophies

Future Correctional Practices

Future Correctional Problems

Future Correctional Research

The Challenges Ahead for Corrections

Summary

Thinking About Correctional Policies and Practices: Writing Assignments

Cases Cited

Glossary

Index

This fifth edition first published 2014

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Edition History: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning (4e, 2009; 3e, 2005)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Mays, G. Larry.

Essentials of corrections / G. Larry Mays and L. Thomas Winfree, Jr. – Fifth edition.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-53721-3 (pbk.)

1. Corrections. 2. Corrections–United States. I. Winfree, Latham T. (Latham Thomas), 1946- II. Title.

HV8665.M39 2014

365–dc23

2013028445

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: © Noam Armonn/Spaces Images/Corbis

Cover design by Simon Levy

For Brenda;
Greg, Lisa, Mina, Robert, and Knox;
Gelaine, Gabe, Lucy, Oliver, Cooper, and Maggie.

Larry Mays

For Richard Vandiver, teacher, scholar, and mentor.

For Edwin E. Jeffery, husband, father, grandfather, great-grandfather, and good friend.

You both are missed.

Tom Winfree

Preface

There are a variety of television shows and movies that deal with various aspects of law enforcement, some fictional and some real. However, the corrections component of the criminal justice system does not seem to garner the same amount of attention. This is interesting given that there are over 7 million adults in the United States under some form of correctional supervision, in addition to juveniles supervised and confined by the juvenile justice system. Furthermore, there are nearly 800,000 people employed in corrections at the local, state, and federal levels accounting for nearly $80 billion in annual payroll. By any measure, correctional agencies and operations in the United States are big business. Nevertheless, for many people much of the corrections component of the criminal justice system remains out of sight, and out of mind.

The two authors of this book have found the world of corrections to be both fascinating and frustrating. Collectively, we have spent more than 60 years working around, researching, and teaching about corrections. In some ways, the two of us feel like we know less now than when we began. Why is that? Several reasons seem apparent.

The field of corrections involves a complex array of people, places, institutions, and agencies. The successes of the dedicated people who work in this field seldom are publicized. The failures make local, state, national, and even international news. When we talk to our former students who work in corrections, they express an optimism that is borne of the conviction that they are doing something really worthwhile for society. By the same token, they are often disappointed that legislators, the general public, and the news media do not understand what they do, and thanks are seldom conveyed to them for a job well done. They also feel that the growing correctional populations and insufficient resources to manage those populations further handicap them. Like many employees of the criminal justice system, of which corrections is a big part, they point to the role that politics plays in the administration of punishment.

Additionally, the field of corrections is an ever-changing enterprise, and it is much different today than it was 20 or even ten years ago. Correctional agencies have been affected by changing laws at the state and federal levels, and the influence of prisoner litigation is an ever-present reality.

Finally, movements to improve the quality of correctional employees, their work environment, professionalization, and a heightened sense of ethics all play a major part in contemporary corrections. These three factors have made it challenging for us as we have worked on each successive edition of this book. Beginning with the first edition, our intent was to present a thorough but tightly focused textbook covering the essentials of corrections. The first edition had 11 chapters. When we did the second edition, we added an entire chapter on careers in corrections. The third edition brought two additional chapters: one on race and ethnicity and another on gender, and in this edition we have added a separate chapter on special needs inmates. Throughout the process, we have tried to maintain our focus on a book that covers the basics in the most thorough way possible.

The Goals of This Book

The changing forces of corrections in the United States have now brought us to the fifth edition, one that presented its own challenges. As with past editions, we have pursued a number of goals in preparing this edition.

First, although we recognize that instructors must teach from the book, we want the book to be accessible intellectually to students from a variety of backgrounds and degrees of preparation. If students cannot grasp the material we have presented, then our efforts have been in vain. Comprehension is an essential step in mastery. So we view the students as our target audience.

Second, we have made every effort to present the material in a logical format. We want the material to flow from one chapter to the next and for the book to “tell a story.” In this regard, we have attempted to minimize our separate voices in the writing process and to present the material as if it were written by one person. In each successive edition, this has become easier.

Third, we want to present the broad sweep of the corrections component to students who may or may not end up working in corrections. Although the aim was to make this an “essentials” book, we have been as thorough as possible without drowning students in a sea of interesting, but nonessential, information. We recognize that some colleges and universities may require this course whereas others offer it as an elective. Whichever the case, we want the students who read this book and complete the course to feel relatively secure in the breadth if not depth of their knowledge of corrections in the United States and the world beyond.

Fourth, we continue to include some materials that we consider classics in the field of corrections while focusing on the most recent material available. The newer material is taken from scholarly monographs, research articles, or federal government documents prepared by the Bureau of Justice Statistics or otherwise available through the National Criminal Justice Reference Service. However, as we (and most authors) are quick to acknowledge, as soon as a book is published the material included is already somewhat dated. Therefore, most of the data we have included ends with 2010. This date was chosen because it gave us the most complete figures for corrections operations, and it allowed us to compare “apples with apples” more readily.

As a result of these goals, we have pursued two strategies diligently in the creation of the fifth edition of our collaborative work: (1) We have updated and added material throughout the entire book at the suggestion of several reviewers and instructors who have used previous editions; and (2) we have eliminated some of the topics that no longer seem as essential. Nevertheless, we have retained our original promise to ourselves that we wanted a book that was understandable by students. Therefore, in the next section, we will outline the many changes that have occurred in the revision and production of this book.

The Fifth Edition

Before considering the individual chapters, it is useful to outline some of the new features of this edition. In terms of reorganization, we have added an entirely new chapter on special needs inmates. Some of this information was included in different chapters in previous editions of the book, but this edition pulls all of this material together in one chapter and adds significant sections on immigration detainees and gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender inmates.

Most of the chapters have boxed materials dealing with current issues and controversies in corrections. Additionally, we have included boxes on international corrections in all chapters. We have had the feeling for some time that looking at how other countries address their correctional populations and problems helps students understand better what we do in the United States and why.

At the end of each chapter, we have provided three different devices that should help students develop a mastery of the material. First, we provide a list of key terms. These terms are emphasized and are defined for the students in the book's extensive glossary.

Second, we include a series of critical review questions. Rather than asking students simply to repeat information discussed in the text, our intent was for students to use these questions to test themselves on the degree to which they really grasp the material presented in the chapter. However, we believe that the questions can be used in quite a few different ways. For example, students can be assigned to answer the questions in small groups. The questions could also be used for essay exams.

Finally, we both believe very strongly in developing students' abilities to write, so in addition to the critical review questions, we have expanded the list of writing assignments in this edition. Each of these writing assignments is designed to have students create short (typically one to two page) essays that make them think critically and then express their answers in written form. We believe that both students and instructors will find these writing assignments useful and thought provoking.

Organization of the Text

Chapter 1

Introduction to Corrections continues to provide an overview of the criminal justice system component that we call corrections. It gives students a brief look at the sweep of correctional agencies and institutions, and provides them with the basic terminology that they will need throughout the book.

Chapter 2

A Brief History of Punishments and Corrections deals with the issues of history and theory. These may not seem to be the most exciting topics to students, but we have long maintained that both are essential to understanding where we are today and how we got here. We have made every effort not to present material in this chapter as dry and boring statistics, but to make both history and theory come alive for students.

Chapter 3

Sentencing and Criminal Sanctions covers the topic of sentencing and criminal sanctions. We believe that students need to understand how offenders come into the domain of the corrections system. Some of this material may have been covered in a previous class such as Introduction to Criminal Justice or Criminal Law. However, we are committed to making sure that students have a complete grasp of the material whether they have heard it before or not.

Chapter 4

Probation and Community Corrections contains material that has been substantially revised and updated. In previous editions, probation and parole were included in one chapter, and that chapter came much later in the text. Beginning with the fourth edition, we placed probation much earlier in the book (where it usually falls in the process) and combined it with material on community corrections (which was a separate chapter in the first three editions).

Chapter 5

Jails and Detention Facilities deals with jails and other types of short-term detention facilities. Often jails get little or no treatment in corrections books, but they represent the front door to all correctional processing that will follow. Not everyone in jail will be placed on probation or go to prison, but virtually everyone on probation or in prison has been in jail at some point.

Chapter 6

Institutional Corrections focuses on the institutional aspect of corrections, primarily jails and prisons. In some ways, institutional corrections gets an inordinate amount of attention. This element of the corrections work world certainly is the focus of much of the funding, research, and public thought when the word corrections is introduced.

Chapter 7

Jail and Prison Inmates covers information on the inmates housed in jails and prisons around the United States. This is one chapter where recent information is readily available from the US Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS). Students can access the BJS website (http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/) if they are interested in finding statistics for this class or other classes. They can also access current studies of a more general nature on corrections and related topics from the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS) (www.ncjrs.gov). Instructors also might assign a little “scavenger hunt” by having students find facts and figures about certain correctional topics through either BJS or NCJRS.

Chapter 8

Special Needs Inmates deals with an increasingly problematic issue in corrections: inmates who have more than usual needs in terms of medical care, mental health care, treatment programming, and living arrangements. The groups incorporated into this chapter's discussions include adolescents and young adults; inmates with communicable diseases (especially HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis); those who are drug and alcohol dependent; inmates with mental health problems and mental illness; gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender inmates; and individuals being detained for immigration violations.

Chapter 9

Parole and Prisoner Reentry was added to the previous edition and, fortunately, several recent studies and data sources were available to help in the revision of this section. Although not prescriptive in its approach to prisoner reentry, the chapter does suggest that much more can be done to facilitate success in the lives of those who leave prison to live among us once again.

Chapter 10

Careers in Corrections first appeared in the third edition, although the title was a bit vague. Beginning with the fourth edition, we made this chapter's title much more explicit: Careers in Corrections. Furthermore, we have updated the information available from the Bureau of Labor Statistics that covers job outlook and potential salary structure for corrections positions nationwide. As always, students should be encouraged to check with their state corrections department to get the most up-to-date local information. Chapter 10 also has expanded discussions of professionalization and ethics for corrections employees.

Chapter 11

The Administration of Corrections Programs deals with professionalization and ethics, topics of continuing concern throughout criminal justice agencies. In this chapter, the discussions focus on the challenges faced by correctional administrators. We recognize that students will not step from college into an administrative position, but they will be working in an administrative environment and working for managers and administrators. Our goal in this chapter was to sensitize students to the challenges faced by administrators (not only in corrections, but in practically every criminal justice organization).

Chapter 12

Corrections Law and Inmate Litigation discusses the crucial area of law and litigation. Whether they want to admit it or not, students who work in corrections will be involved in a career with high litigation potential. They may not be sued personally—although some might—but their agencies and organizations will be sued regularly. This chapter also updates some of the major cases (and changes) dealing with the death penalty in the United States.

Chapter 13

Gender Issues in Corrections was added to the third edition of the book, and we have continued to revise and update it for this edition. At any point in the criminal justice system, the inclusion of an in-depth discussion of women and their role as either clients or service providers is rare. We tried to raise the bar for discussions of gender in corrections by reversing this trend in Chapter 13. We review the worlds of incarcerated women and those in alternative programming, as well as suggest areas where women's needs are unique and distinct from those of male offenders. We close with an admittedly brief discussion of women as correctional employees. As we began work on the fifth edition we realized that this, unfortunately, is an area still somewhat overlooked by policy makers and corrections researchers.

Chapter 14

Race, Ethnicity, and Corrections delves into some critical and often provocative topics, including the definitions of race and ethnicity, sentencing disparities, disproportionate minority contacts with the criminal justice system, and the death penalty. In it, we introduce students to the various ways race and ethnicity affect offenders' lives, whether they are confined in prisons and jails or placed on probation and parole.

Chapter 15

The Future of Corrections is not, as in some textbooks, something of a throwaway. We have always wanted Chapter 15, The Future of Corrections, to present substantive material. Some of the discussions are clearly based on current research in terms of what works and what does not. Other discussions are speculative, and they deal with what might be called the science fiction of corrections. We have taken current technologies and some technologies under development, and have extrapolated these to imagine what the future of corrections might look like. We want this chapter to be significant, but also fun for both students and instructors.

Comprehensive Online Ancillary Resources

The revised and expanded ancillaries for this text are available on its companion website. To begin using this site please visit www.wiley.com/go/mays5e

Unlike the case of many textbook ancillaries, both the Instructor's Section and the Student Section have been prepared by the two authors of the text. We consider this to be a value-added feature, as the ancillaries for many introductory texts are written by third parties hired by the publisher.

These ancillaries have been substantially revised and expanded to go along with the new organization of the book. Additionally, the Instructor's Section includes new materials that we did not have space for in the text itself. We provide numerous suggestions for classroom exercises (such as discussions and group work), films, other books, and the types of guest speakers that might be appropriate at various points in the course.

Wiley has made available to students and instructors the following online resource materials:

A new student study guide: This study guide is a new feature of the fifth edition. It is located in the Student Section. The guide will help students review materials from the chapters and help prepare them for classroom discussions, assignments, and examinations. We want to acknowledge Dr Carolyn Dennis of Keiser University who prepared the study guide.

A list of web resources keyed to each chapter: Both students and instructors will benefit from using these sites listed to update data in the chapters—and also to further explore topics that, of necessity, are covered somewhat briefly in the text. There is also a list of state-by-state corrections department websites provided.

Links to open-source videos. These can be used along with the text to illustrate points covered in class and in the book's chapters.

Sample syllabi. These will be especially helpful for instructors teaching this class for the first time, or who have not taught the course on a regular basis.

Acknowledgments

A new edition of this book brought a new publisher and a new editor with whom to work. We want to thank Julia Teweles for her pursuit of us as authors and her confidence in us and this project. We would like to thank the many people who have served as reviewers throughout the life of this book. Their suggestions have proved to be very valuable and they are much appreciated. Also, there were a number of individuals who worked through the production process, including Julia Kirk, Project Editor. Eileen Winfree also was gracious enough to proofread and make suggestions on the entire manuscript as we got it ready for submission. Both of our wives qualify for sainthood as a result of the trials we have put them through over the years with our book projects.

G. Larry Mays

L. Thomas Winfree, Jr.

1

Introduction to Corrections

LUCY ATKINS/CORBIS

Outline

Current Trends

Philosophies of Punishment

Outlooks on Corrections

The Role of Criminological Theories

Corrections Programs

Objectives

To provide you with an understanding of the breadth and depth of corrections

To acquaint you with the various philosophies and goals of punishment

To reveal to you the role of criminological theory as a means to understand offenders

To provide you with a contemporary view of corrections and a prospective look into its future

To give you an overview of the various subjects explored in this textbook

Introduction

What comes to mind when you hear the word corrections? Do you think about prisons with massive stone walls and downtrodden inmates like those portrayed in dozens of movies? Perhaps you think about chain gangs, inmates in orange jumpsuits picking up trash along a highway, or prisoners in white uniforms hoeing in a line in a field. Do these images accurately reflect contemporary corrections?

The answer is yes, to a degree. But today corrections encompasses much more than the custodial supervision of convicted offenders inside or outside a secure facility. According to the US Department of Justice, at the end of 2010, an estimated 7.1 million adults in the United States (1 in 48 adults) were under some type of correctional supervision (Glaze 2011). Of this total, 4.06 million adults were on probation and another 840,676 were on parole. The rest, nearly 2.3 million adults, were confined in prisons and jails.

Probation. Parole. Prisons. Jails. These are critical components of corrections in the twenty-first century, but they are by no means the only components. According to the US Department of Justice, corrections “includes all government agencies, facilities, programs, procedures, personnel, and techniques concerned with the intake, custody, confinement, supervision, or treatment, or presentencing or predisposition investigation of alleged or adjudicated adult offenders, delinquents, or status offenders” (1981, 53). As used in this textbook, corrections refers to all government actions intended to manage adults who have been accused or convicted of criminal offenses and juveniles who have been charged with or found guilty of delinquency or a status offense.

In this chapter, we explore the philosophical and practical underpinnings of contemporary corrections. In order to gain a better understanding of our nation's formal response to criminals, we examine the philosophies that provide the foundation for “correcting” convicted offenders. Then we review the public and political attitudes that shape contemporary corrections policy, and the effects of those attitudes. Next we explore the explanations for crime that criminologists have developed over the past several centuries. Their theories will be especially useful when we start to consider the methods of treating convicted criminals. We conclude the chapter with a look at the nation's corrections programs. Before we begin our exploration of the essentials of corrections, however, we turn to an overview of current trends.

Current Trends

Between the early 1980s and the end of the century, the United States experienced an enormous increase in the number of individuals under the supervision of adult correctional programs. In 1980, fewer than 2 million people were under any form of institutional or community supervision. As noted above, the nation's correctional systems reported more than 7 million detainees, inmates, and supervisees in 2010. As Figure 1.1 shows, between 1980 and 2007, the climb in the number of people age 18 and older under some form of supervision, especially in prisons and on probation, was steady and unrelenting. Beginning in 2009, after a 2 year plateau, the numbers started to move downward, led mainly by declines within the probation and jail populations.

FIGURE 1.1 Total population under the supervision of adult correctional systems and annual percent change, 1980–2010. Source: Glaze (2011, 1).
NOTE: Annual percentage change was based on within-year change in the probation and parole populations and year-to-year changes in the prison and jail populations. The annual percentage change in 1998 and 1999 was adjusted to account for expanded coverage of probation agencies during those years.

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