Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

Series Foreword

Advancing River Restoration and Management

Foreword

List of Contributors

Chapter 1: Introduction: The Growing Use of Imagery in Fundamental and Applied River Sciences

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Remote sensing, river sciences and management

1.3 Evolution of published work in Fluvial Remote Sensing

1.4 Brief outline of the volume

References

Chapter 2: Management Applications of Optical Remote Sensing in the Active River Channel

2.1 Introduction

2.2 What can be mapped with optical imagery?

2.3 Flood extent and discharge

2.4 Water depth

2.5 Channel change

2.6 Turbidity and suspended sediment

2.7 Bed sediment

2.8 Biotypes (in-stream habitat units)

2.9 Wood

2.10 Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) and algae

2.11 Evolving applications

2.12 Management considerations common to river applications

2.13 Accuracy

2.14 Ethical considerations

2.15 Why use optical remote sensing?

References

Chapter 3: An Introduction to the Physical Basis for Deriving River Information by Optical Remote Sensing

3.1 Introduction

3.2 An overview of radiative transfer in shallow stream channels

3.3 Optical characteristics of river channels

3.4 Inferring river channel attributes from remotely sensed data

3.5 Conclusion

3.6 Notation

References

Chapter 4: Hyperspectral Imagery in Fluvial Environments

4.1 Introduction

4.2 The nature of hyperspectral data

4.3 Advantages of hyperspectral imagery

4.4 Logistical and optical limitations of hyperspectral imagery

4.5 Image processing techniques

4.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 5: Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing of Water Temperature in Riverine Landscapes

5.1 Introduction

5.2 State of the art: TIR remote sensing of streams and rivers

5.3 Technical background to the TIR remote sensing of water

5.4 Extracting useful information from TIR images

5.5 TIR imaging sensors and data sources

5.6 Validating TIR measurements of rivers

5.7 Example 1: Illustrating the necessity of matching the spatial resolution of the TIR imaging device to river width using multi-scale observations of water temperature in the Pacific Northwest (USA)

5.8 Example 2: Thermal heterogeneity in river floodplains used to assess habitat diversity

5.9 Summary

Acknowledgements

5.10 Table of abbreviations

References

Chapter 6: The Use of Radar Imagery in Riverine Flood Inundation Studies

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Microwave imaging of water and flooded land surfaces

6.3 The use of SAR imagery to map and monitor river flooding

6.4 Case study examples

6.5 Summary and outlook

References

Chapter 7: Airborne LiDAR Methods Applied to Riverine Environments

7.1 Introduction: LiDAR definition and history

7.2 Ranging airborne LiDAR physics

7.3 System parameters and capabilities: examples

7.4 LiDAR survey design for rivers

7.5 River characterisation from LiDAR signals

7.6 LiDAR experiments on rivers: accuracies, limitations

7.7 Conclusion and perspectives: the future for airborne LiDAR on rivers

References

Chapter 8: Hyperspatial Imagery in Riverine Environments

8.1 Introduction: The Hyperspatial Perspective

8.2 Hyperspatial image acquisition

8.3 Issues, potential problems and plausible solutions

8.4 From data acquisition to fluvial form and process understanding

8.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 9: Geosalar: Innovative Remote Sensing Methods for Spatially Continuous Mapping of Fluvial Habitat at Riverscape Scale

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Study area and data collection

9.3 Grain size mapping

9.4 Bathymetry mapping

9.5 Further developments in the wake of the Geosalar project

9.6 Flow velocity: mapping or modelling?

9.7 Future work: Integrating fish exploitation of the riverscape

9.8 Conclusion

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 10: Image Utilisation for the Study and Management of Riparian Vegetation: Overview and Applications

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Image analysis in riparian vegetation studies: what can we know?

10.3 Season and scale constraints in riparian vegetation studies

10.4 From scientists' tools to managers' choices: what do we want to know? And how do we get it?

10.5 Examples of imagery applications and potentials for riparian vegetation study

10.6 Perspectives: from images to indicators, automatised and standardised processes

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 11: Biophysical Characterisation of Fluvial Corridors at Reach to Network Scales

11.1 Introduction

11.2 What are the raw data available for a biophysical characterisation of fluvial corridors?

11.3 How can we treat the information?

11.4 Detailed examples to illustrate management issues

11.5 Limitations and constraints when enlarging scales of interest

11.6 Conclusions

11.7 Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 12: The Role of Remotely Sensed Data in Future Scenario Analyses at a Regional Scale

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Methods

12.3 Land use/land cover changes since 1850

12.4 Plan trend 2050 scenario

12.5 Development 2050 scenario

12.6 Conservation 2050 scenario

12.7 Informing decision makers at subbasin extents

12.8 Discussion

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 13: The Use of Imagery in Laboratory Experiments

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Bedload transport

13.3 Channel morphology and flow dynamics

13.4 Bed topography and flow depth

13.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 14: Ground based LiDAR and its Application to the Characterisation of Fluvial Forms

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Scales of application in studies of river systems

References

Chapter 15: Applications of Close-range Imagery in River Research

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Technologies and practices

15.3 Post-processing

15.4 Application of vertical and oblique close-range imagery to monitor bed features and fluvial processes at different spatial and temporal scales

15.5 Summary of benefits and limitations

15.6 Forthcoming issues for river management

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 16: River Monitoring with Ground-based Videography

16.1 Introduction

16.2 General considerations

16.3 Case 1—Stream gauging

16.4 Case 2—Filtering bed and flare effects from LSPIV measurements

16.5 Case 3—At-a-point survey of wood transport

16.6 Discussion and conclusion

References

Chapter 17: Imagery at the Organismic Level: From Body Shape Descriptions to Micro-scale Analyses

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Morphological and anatomical description

17.3 Abundance and biomass

17.4 Detection of stress and diseases

17.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 18: Ground Imagery and Environmental Perception: Using Photo-questionnaires to Evaluate River Management Strategies

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Conceptual framework

18.3 The design of photo-questionnaires

18.4 Applications with photo-questionnaires

18.5 Conclusions and perspectives

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 19: Future Prospects and Challenges for River Scientists and Managers

References

Index

This edition first published 2012

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Cover image: Leonardo da Vinci

A map of the Arno west of Florence

1504

Pen and ink, green and blue wash, over black chalk and stylus

42.2 × 24.2 cm

Reproduced with permission from the Royal Collection Enterprises

Series Foreword

Advancing River Restoration and Management

The field of river restoration and management has evolved enormously in recent decades, driven largely by increased recognition of the ecological values, river functions, and ecosystem services. Many conventional river management techniques, emphasizing hard structural controls, have proven difficult to maintain over time, resulting in sometimes spectacular failures, and often degraded river environment. More sustainable results are likely from a holistic framework, which requires viewing the ‘problem’ at a larger catchment scale and involves the application of tools from diverse fields. Success often hinges on understanding the sometimes complex interactions among physical, ecological and social processes.

Thus, effective river restoration and management requires nurturing the interdisciplinary conversation, testing and refining our scientific theories, reducing uncertainties, designing future scenarios for evaluating the best options, and better understanding the divide between nature and culture that conditions human actions. It also implies that scientists better communicate with managers and practitioners, so that new insights from research can guide management, and so that results from implemented projects can in turn, inform research directions.

The series provides a forum for ‘integrative sciences’ to improve rivers. It highlights innovative approaches, from the underlying science, concepts, methodologies, new technologies, and new practices, to help managers and scientists alike improve our understanding of river processes, and to inform our efforts to better steward and restore our fluvial resources for more harmonious coexistence of humans with their fluvial environment.

G. Mathias Kondolf,
University of California, Berkeley
Hervé Piégay
University of Lyon, CNRS

Foreword

Images and maps have provided visual support to fluvial sciences and river management for centuries. Perhaps the earliest case in point, renaissance master Leonardo Da Vinci (1452–1519) frequently used his artistic talents in order to illustrate his scientific observations of fluid motion. His notes, reflections and observations on water, mostly contained in the Codex Leicester (Da Vinci, c1510), contain remarkably accurate drawings of wave erosion and water flow in both meanders and confluences. Da Vinci was also greatly concerned by the control and management of rivers and as a result the Codex Leicester contains detailed observations and drawings of water flowing around man-made obstacles. Most striking to the modern eye is the accuracy of Da Vinci's technical drawings and illustrations. Flow lines around bridge piers and other obstacles are painstakingly drawn to scale and into patterns giving an impressive level of process representation. This detailed sketching recorded the observations which often provided the foundations for scientific reasoning. In short, Da Vinci used a visual media (i.e. an image) as a tool to encode information on fluvial processes.

Furthermore, Da Vinci's scientific inquiry was not confined to the small scale observation of local flow phenomena. His illustrations of the Arno River which flows through Florence, demonstrate once again his acute sense of observation. For example, the cover art for this volume shows a sketch of the Arno and Mugnone rivers. To fluvial scientists and practitioners, this early visual representation of a river from an aerial perspective has a few fascinating features. The accurately rendered fluvial forms almost give the viewer the impression of an image rather than a map. Da Vinci clearly has a good understanding of channel features at a range of scales and these were rendered faithfully in his sketches. We can see small scale meanders, confluences and bifurcations. At larger scales, we can see clear distinctions between the main channel, secondary channels and inactive, possibly dry, channels. Furthermore, Da Vinci has clearly defined the boundaries of the braided band thus giving the viewer the impression of three distinct land-cover types in this landscape: the wetted channels, the active braided band and the vegetated area. Whilst it would obviously be exaggerated to consider Da Vinci as a pioneer of remote sensing, his work nevertheless provides one of the earliest and best known examples of visual data (i.e. sketches) used to convey technical information about fluvial landscapes and flow processes with a view towards both fundamental science and management.

Da Vinci relied on his well trained powers of observation in order to faithfully reproduce, among other, fluvial forms and features. However, the invention of photography in the late nineteenth century triggered a fundamental reversal of this process. With the photograph as an acceptable, or at least approximate, representation of geometric reality, the viewer of the image becomes the observer and information about the photographed scene can be acquired without direct physical presence or contact. In short, the photograph becomes a data acquisition method. Furthermore, with the contemporary invention of air travel in the late nineteenth century, it is not surprising that many early aeronauts and photographers collaborated and gave birth to aerial photography. In 1855, Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, most often referred to by his pseudonym ‘Nadar’, patented the concept of using aerial photographs for surveying and mapping. After three years of experimentation, in 1858, Nadar took the very first aerial photograph, a moment which was caricatured by Honoré Baumier in 1863 (Figure 1). Nadar had clearly understood the future potential of imagery as a source of information. Indeed, imagery and remote sensing have now become standardised data acquisition approaches with far reaching applications in all the physical and environmental sciences.

Figure 1 Caricature by Honoré Daumier of the first aerial photograph taken by Gaspard-Félix Tournachon (Nadar) in 1858.

Inspired by these early thinkers who pioneered the use of visual representations in fluvial sciences and mapping, this edited volume will examine the most recent applications and uses of imagery and image-derived information in river sciences and management. Our goal is to present some key highlights of nearly two decades of research during which the use of image data has emerged along with important advances in sciences and technologies which are fundamentally enhancing our ability to characterise river geometry, sediment calibre, water characteristics, vegetation type, vegetation dynamics, ice dynamics, flooding, organisms, social value, etc and, ultimately, allows managers to provide practical recommendations. Our intended audience is a non-specialist one, this volume seeks to serve as an accessible entry point to both river managers and students who are looking for a condensed reference text capable of answering basic questions and explaining some of the more fundamental concepts. It is our hope that this volume will allow readers to determine if image-based approaches are suitable to their needs and thus encourage them to pursue the wider literature on the topic.

The Editors,
Patrice E. Carbonneau and Hervé Piégay

List of Contributors

Adrien Alber, University of Lyon, CNRS, France

Imtiaz Ali, Universitéy de Lyon, Bron cedex, France; Optics Labs, Islamabad, Pakistan

Tristan Allouis, Irstea, UMR TETIS, Montpellier, France

Jean-Stéphane Bailly, AgroParisTech, UMR TETIS and UMR LISAH, Montpellier, France

Giuliano Di Baldassarre, Department of Hydroinformatics and Knowledge Management, UNESCO-IHE, Delft, The Netherlands

Paul D. Bates, School of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Normand Bergeron, Institut National de Recherche Scientifique, Centre Eau Terre et Environnement, Québec, Canada

Walter Bertoldi, Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile e Ambientale, Universita degli studi di Trento, Italy

Mélanie Bertrand, Irstea, Unité de Recherche ETNA, Saint-Martin-d'Hères, and University of Lyon, CNRS, France

Thomas Buffin-Bélanger, Département de biologie, chimie et géographie, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, Québec, Canada

Patrice E. Carbonneau, Department of Geography, Durham University, Science site, Durham, UK

Keith A. Cherkauer, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Yann Le Coarer, Irstea, Unité de Recherche, HYAX, Aix-en-Provence, France

S. Corgne, LETG - Rennes COSTEL, CNRS, Université Rennes 2, Place Recteur Henri le Moal, France

Marylise Cottet, University of Lyon, CNRS, France

Simon Dufour, LETG - Rennes COSTEL, CNRS, Université Rennes 2, Place Recteur Henri le Moal, France

Robert Dunford, Environmental Change Institute, Oxford University Centre for the Environment, Oxford, UK

Russel N. Faux, Watershed Sciences, Inc., Corvallis, OR, USA

Denis Feurer, IRD, UMR LISAH, Montpellier, France

Mark A. Fonstad, Department of Geography, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Philippe Frey, Irstea, Unité de Recherche ETNA, St-Martin-d'Hères, France

Alan R. Gillespie, Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

David Graham, Department of Geography, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK

Stan Gregory, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA

Rebecca N. Handcock, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Floreat, WA, Australia

Alexandre Hauet, EDF - DTG - CHPMC, Toulouse, France

George Heritage, JBA Consulting, The Brew House, Wilderspool Park, Grenalls Avenue, Warrington, UK

Dave Hulse, Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

Paul J. Kinzel, USGS, Geomorphology and Sediment Transport Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA

Eric Lajeunesse, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France

Andy Large, School of Geography, Politics and Sociology, Newcastle University, UK

J. Wesley Lauer, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Seattle University, Seattle, WA, USA

Yves-Francois Le Lay, University of Lyon, CNRS, France

Carl J. Legleiter, Department of Geography, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY, USA

Jérôme Lejot, University of Lyon, CNRS, France

Angela Limare, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France

Bruce J. MacVicar, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

W. Andrew Marcus, Department of Geography, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR, USA

David C. Mason, Environmental Systems Science Centre, University of Reading, UK

François, Métivier, Aix-Marseille Université, France

Kristell Michel, University of Lyon, CNRS, France

Etienne Muller, Université de Toulouse; CNRS, INP, UPS; EcoLab (Laboratoire Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Environnement), France

Doug Oetter, Department of History, Geography, and Philosophy, Georgia College and State University, Milledgeville, GA, USA

Hervé Piégay, University of Lyon, CNRS, France

Stephen Rice, Department of Geography, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, UK

Anne Rivière-Honegger, University of Lyon, CNRS, France

Anne-Julia Rollet, University of Caen Basse-Normandie, Géophen, LETG UMR 6554 CNRS, France

Pierre Sagnes, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne Cedex, France

Guy J-P. Schumann, School of Geographical Sciences, Bristol, UK

Menno Straatsma, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands

Michal Tal, Aix-Marseille Université, France

Jing Tan, Department of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Klement Tockner, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries and Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany

Christian E. Torgersen, U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

Laure Tougne, Universitéy de Lyon, Bron cedex, France

Elise Wiederkehr, Université of Lyon, CNRS, France

Wonsuck Kim, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA

Chapter 1

Introduction: The Growing Use of Imagery in Fundamental and Applied River Sciences

Patrice E. Carbonneau¹ and Hervé Piégay²

¹ Department of Geography, Durham University, Science site, Durham, UK
²University of Lyon, CNRS, France

1.1 Introduction

Earth observation now plays a pivotal role in many aspects of our lives. Indeed, hardly a day goes by without some part of our lives relying on some form of remote sensing. Weather predictions, mapping and high level scientific applications all make intensive use of imagery acquired from satellites, aircraft or ground-based remote sensing platforms. This form of data acquisition which relies on the reflection or emission of radiation on a target surface is now well accepted as a standard approach to data acquisition. However, the fields of river sciences and remote sensing have operated independently during much of their respective histories. Indeed remote sensing practitioners generally consider streams as linear, or perhaps network, entities in the landscape. In contrast, river scientists such as fluvial geomorphologists, lotic and riparian ecologists, with their focus on the internal structure of rivers and the processes which create these structures, often have a much more localised but three dimensional view of river systems. Nevertheless, both modern fluvial geomorphology and ecology are increasingly recognising that we need to reconcile these viewpoints. In a seminal paper, Fausch et al. (2002) discuss the scientific basis for this reconciliation. These authors argue that natural processes, both biotic and abiotic, frequently operate on larger spatial scales and longer time scales than traditional river sciences and management. Consequently, the authors argue that localised, non-continuous, sampling of small scale river processes, forms and biota leads to a fundamental scale mismatch between the processes under scrutiny and our data collection. Fausch et al. (2002) therefore argue that river sciences and management must begin to consider and sample river catchments (i.e. watersheds) at larger scales and that these units must be considered more explicitly as holistic system.

The need to study and sample river catchments as holistic systems naturally leads to the use of remote sensing as a basic methodology. Remotely sensed data and imagery is indeed the only approach which could conceivably give continuous data over entire catchments (Mertes, 2002; Fonstad and Marcus, 2010). However, in the 1990s and early 2000s, existing remote sensing acquisition hardware and analysis methods were neither tailored nor very suitable to the needs and interests of river scientists and managers. Mertes (2002) presented a review of remote sensing in riverine environments at the turn of the century. At that time, any data with sub-metric spatial resolution was considered of ‘microhabitat’ scale. Consequently, riverine features identified by remote sensing in the late twentieth century were generally of hectametric or kilometric scales. However, developments in the early twentieth century proceeded at a rapid pace and our ability to resolve fine details in the landscape has dramatically improved in the last decade (see Chapter 8 and Marcus and Fonstad (2008) for a comprehensive review). Therefore, publications on the remote sensing of rivers have dramatically increased and ‘Fluvial Remote Sensing’ (FRS) is emerging as a self-contained sub-discipline of remote sensing and river sciences (Marcus and Fonstad, 2010). Moreover, the technical progress accomplished in the past two decades of research in FRS means that this sub-discipline of remote sensing has now begun to make real contributions to river sciences and management and the appearance of a volume on the topic is therefore timely. Our aim with this edited volume is to give readers with a minimal background in remote sensing a concise text that will cover the broadest possible range of potential applications of Fluvial Remote Sensing and provide contrasted examples to illustrate the capabilities and the variety of techniques and issues. Readers will notice when consulting the table of contents that we take a very broad view of ‘remote sensing’. In addition to more conventional remote sensing approaches such as satellite imagery, air photography and laser scanning, the volume includes a wider range of applications where image and/or video data is applied to support river science and management. This chapter will set the context of this volume by first giving a very brief introduction to remote sensing and by discussing the evolution of journal publications in fluvial remote sensing approaches and river management. Finally, we will give a brief outline of the volume.

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