Table of Contents

Cover

WILEY SERIES IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING AND MULTIDISCIPLINARY INTEGRATED SYSTEMS

Title page

Copyright page

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1. NANOMEDICINE: A GLOBAL VISION

1.2. THE NANOTECHNOLOGY REVOLUTION: REALIZATION OF ASIMOV’S FICTION

1.3. NANOMEDICINE: A NEW ERA IN PERSONALIZED MEDICINE

1.4. NANOMEDICINE: A PROMISE OR REALITY?

1.5. A NEW FRONTIER: MULTIDISCIPLINARY CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

1.6. SCOPE OF THE BOOK: MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND RESEARCH

CHAPTER 2 THE HUMAN BODY

2.1. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

2.2. CELLULAR STRUCTURE

2.3. VARIOUS TYPES OF CELLS

2.4. BIOCHEMICAL MAKEUP OF CELLS

2.5. OTHER IMPORTANT CELLULAR COMPONENTS

2.6. CELLULAR PROCESSES

2.7. ORGANIZATION OF CELLS INTO TISSUES

2.8. TYPES OF TISSUES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

2.9. VARIOUS ORGANS AND ORGAN SYSTEMS IN THE BODY

2.10. TUMORS AND CANCERS

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 3 NANOCARRIERS

3.1. NANOCARRIERS: DELIVERING PAYLOADS TO NEEDED SITES

3.2. THE VARIOUS NANOFORMULATIONS FOR NANOMEDICINE

3.3. VIRUSES AS NANOCARRIERS

3.4. POLYMERIC NANOCARRIERS

3.5. LIPID-BASED NANOCARRIERS

3.6. DENDRIMERS

3.7. CARBON NANOSTRUCTURES

3.8. INORGANIC NANOPARTICLES

3.9. PEBBLE

3.10. NANOCLINICS

3.11. NANOPLEXES

3.12. NEW-GENERATION NANOCARRIERS

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 4 NANOCHEMISTRY OF NANOCARRIERS

4.1. NANOCHEMISTRY AND NANOMEDICINE

4.2. TOP-DOWN APPROACHES

4.3. BOTTOM-UP APPROACHES

4.4. COMBINATION OF BOTTOM-UP AND TOP-DOWN APPROACHES

4.5. NANOPARTICLE SURFACE MODIFICATION

4.6. FUNCTIONALIZATION AND BIOCONJUGATION

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 5 MULTIFUNCTIONALITIES FOR DIAGNOSTICS AND THERAPY

5.1. THE VARIOUS FUNCTIONALITIES

5.2. OPTICAL FUNCTIONALITIES

5.3. OPTICAL NANOPROBES

5.4. MAGNETIC FUNCTIONALITY

5.5. THERMAL FUNCTIONALITY

5.6. RADIOACTIVE FUNCTIONALITY

5.7. BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONALITY

5.8. MULTIFUNCTIONALITY

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 6 CROSSING THE BIOLOGICAL BARRIERS

6.1. VARIOUS DELIVERY PATHWAYS

6.2. VARIOUS BIOLOGICAL BARRIERS

6.3. STEALTH NANOPARTICLES

6.4. THE VARIOUS IN VITRO BARRIER MODELS

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 7 BIOTARGETING

7.1. BIOTARGETING: WHY WE NEED IT

7.2. TARGETED BIOLOGICAL SITES

7.3. INTRACELLULAR UPTAKE

7.4. TARGETING STRATEGIES

7.5. TARGETING GROUPS

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 8 MULTIMODAL BIOMEDICAL IMAGING

8.1. BIOMEDICAL IMAGING TECHNIQUES

8.2. OPTICAL BIOIMAGING

8.3. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING

8.4. X-RAY CT IMAGING

8.5. RADIO IMAGING

8.6. ULTRASOUND IMAGING

8.7. PHOTOACOUSTIC IMAGING

8.8. MULTIMODAL IMAGING

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 9 BIOSENSING

9.1. PRINCIPLES OF BIOSENSING

9.2. OPTICAL BIOSENSORS

9.3. MAGNETIC BIOSENSORS

9.4. ELECTRICAL BIOSENSING

9.5. ELECTROCHEMICAL BIOSENSING

9.6. ELECTROCHEMILUMINESCENCE BIOSENSING

9.7. IN VIVO BIOELECTRONIC SENSORS

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 10 HIGH-THROUGHPUT MULTIPLEXED DIAGNOSTICS

10.1. COMPREHENSIVE DIAGNOSTIC STRATEGY

10.2. FLOW CYTOMETRY

10.3. ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA)

10.4. MICROARRAYS TECHNOLOGY

10.5. SUSPENSION BEAD ASSAY

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 11 NANOPHARMACOTHERAPY

11.1. NANOPHARMACOTHERAPY: AN OVERVIEW

11.2. MODES OF NANOFORMULATION FOR NANOPHARMACOTHERAPY

11.3. PHARMACOKINETICS

11.4. BIODISTRIBUTION

11.5. PHARMACODYNAMICS

11.6. CONTROLLED RELEASE BY EXTERNAL ACTIVATION

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 12 THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM AND THERANOSTICS

12.1. BLOOD FLUIDICS AND CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

12.2. CIRCULATORY-SYSTEM-BASED DISEASE PROFILING

12.3. METHODS TO MONITOR BLOOD FLOW

12.4. THERAPEUTIC APPROACHES UTILIZING MANIPULATION OF BLOOD FLOW

12.5. LYMPH NODE MAPPING

12.6. LYMPHATIC DRUG DELIVERY

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 13 NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR CANCER

13.1. BENEFITS OF CANCER NANOTECHNOLOGY

13.2. CHEMOTHERAPY

13.3. CANCER GENE THERAPY

13.4. PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY

13.5. MAGNETIC THERAPY

13.6. PHOTOTHERMAL THERAPY

13.7. NEUTRON CAPTURE THERAPY

13.8. CIRCULATING TUMOR CELLS

13.9. NCI ALLIANCE FOR CANCER NANOTECHNOLOGY

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 14 GENE THERAPY

14.1. THE PRINCIPLES, STEPS, AND IMPACT OF GENE THERAPY

14.2. METHODS OF GENE DELIVERY

14.3. GENE AUGMENTATION THERAPY

14.4. GENE SILENCING THERAPY

14.5. INDIRECT GENE THERAPY MODULATING INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSE

14.6. TRANSMUCOSAL GENE DELIVERY

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 15 NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR INFECTIOUS DISEASES

15.1. PATHOGEN INFECTIONS AND NANOPARTICLE-BASED APPROACHES

15.2. HIV

15.3. INFLUENZA

15.4. TUBERCULOSIS

15.5. MALARIA

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 16 REJUVENATION THERAPY

16.1. REJUVENATION THERAPY: FANTASY OR REALITY?

16.2. FREE RADICAL SCAVENGING

16.3. CHELATION THERAPY

16.4. HORMONE THERAPY

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 17 STEM CELL BIOTECHNOLOGY

17.1. STEM CELL BIOTECHNOLOGY: OVERVIEW

17.2. CELL REPROGRAMMING

17.3. GENE TRANSFECTION

17.4. SOMATIC CELL TRANSDIFFERENTIATION

17.5. STEM CELL SORTING

17.6. STEM CELL TRACKING

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 18 TISSUE ENGINEERING

18.1. TISSUE ENGINEERING: OVERVIEW

18.2. TISSUE REGENERATION

18.3. NANOTECHNOLOGY IN TISSUE ENGINEERING

18.4. NANOFIBERS FOR TISSUE ENGINEERING

18.5. NANOPARTICLE DELIVERY OF BIOMOLECULES

18.6. MAGNETICALLY ASSISTED TISSUE ENGINEERING

18.7. TISSUE/ORGAN PRINTING

18.8. TISSUE BONDING

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 19 NANODERMATOLOGY AND NANOCOSMETICS

19.1. DELIVERY THROUGH SKIN

19.2. SKIN CARE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

19.3. VARIOUS NANOPARTICLES FOR DERMATOLOGY AND COSMETICS

19.4. NANODERMATOLOGY

19.5. NANOCOSMETICS

19.6. NANOTOXICOLOGY OF THE SKIN

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 20 NANODENTISTRY

20.1. NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR DENTAL CARE

20.2. NANOPARTICLES FOR PREVENTIVE DENTISTRY

20.3. NANOMATERIALS FOR RESTORATIVE DENTISTRY

20.4. REGENERATIVE DENTISTRY

20.5. NANOPARTICLE-ENHANCED DENTAL IMAGING AND ORAL DIAGNOSTICS

20.6. NANOROBOTICS FOR DENTISTRY

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

CHAPTER 21 NANOTOXICITY

21.1. TOXICITY OF NANOPARTICLES

21.2. CYTOTOXICITY

21.3. IN VITRO CYTOTOXICITY ASSAYS

21.4. IN VIVO TOXICITY

21.5. IN VIVO TOXICITY EVALUATION

21.6. NANOTOXICITY STUDIES ON SELECTED NANOPARTICLES

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE CHAPTER

Index

WILEY SERIES IN BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING AND MULTIDISCIPLINARY INTEGRATED SYSTEMS

KAI CHANG, SERIES EDITOR

Advances in Optical Imaging for Clinical Medicine
Nicusor Iftimia, William R. Brugge, and Daniel X. Hammer (Editors)

Antigen Retrieval Immunohistochemistry Based Research and Diagnostics
Shan-Rong Shi and Clive R. Taylor

Introduction to Nanomedicine and Nanobioengineering
Paras N. Prasad

Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Prasad, Paras N.

 Introduction to nanomedicine and nanobioengineering / Paras N. Prasad.

p. ; cm.

 Transforming healthcare with nanotechnology

 Includes bibliographical references.

 ISBN 978-1-118-09343-6

 I. Title. II. Title: Transforming healthcare with nanotechnology.

 [DNLM: 1. Nanomedicine–methods. QT 36.5]

 610.28'4–dc23

2012002564

PREFACE

Nanomedicine and nanobioengineering, defined respectively by the fusion of nanotechnology with medicine and bioengineering, are emerging new frontiers, providing challenges for fundamental research and opportunities for new biotechnologies. These fields promise to make a major impact on healthcare worldwide. They are multidisciplinary fields, creating opportunities in physics, chemistry, applied sciences, engineering, and biology, as well as in biomedical technology and drug development.

A good number of books and reviews discuss selective aspects of nanomedicine and nanobioengineering. However, there is a need for a comprehensive monograph that provides a unified synthesis of these two fields and their joint impact on global healthcare. This book fills this need, by providing an integrated description of nanomedicine and nanobioengineering for new-generation diagnostics and therapy. The comprehensive, multidisciplinary program at our Institute in this integrated field of nanomedicine received early, generous funding from the John R. Oishei Foundation in Buffalo, New York; and the resulting work provided the inspiration and much of the impetus to undertake this writing.

The objective of this book is to provide a basic knowledge of a broad range of topics in an integrated manner so that individuals in all disciplines can rapidly acquire the minimal necessary background for research and development in this field. The author intends this monograph to serve both as a textbook for education and training and as a reference book that aids research and development in areas integrating nanotechnology with medicine and bioengineering. Another aim of the book is to stimulate the interest of researchers, industries, and businesses, as well as to foster collaboration through multidisciplinary programs in these emerging frontiers of bioscience and biotechnology to yield a new dimension for healthcare.

This book encompasses the fundamentals of nanomaterials design, bioengineering, nanodiagnostics, and nanotherapy. Each chapter begins with an introduction describing what a reader will find in that chapter. Each chapter ends with highlights that are basically the “take-home message” and may serve as a review of the materials presented. In addition, exercises are provided to assist in teaching. Throughout the book, examples are given from our research work wherever possible, merely because of convenience; this should be considered supplemental to the excellent work being conducted at various institutions worldwide.

In writing this book, which covers a very broad range of topics, I received help from a large number of individuals at the Institute of Lasers, Photonics, and Biophotonics at the University at Buffalo, State University of New York, as well as from elsewhere. This help has consisted of furnishing technical information, creating illustrations, providing critiques, and preparing the manuscript. A separate Acknowledgments section recognizes these individuals.

Here I would like to acknowledge the individuals whose broad-based support has been of paramount value in completing the book. I express my sincere appreciation to my colleague Professor Paul Knight, M.D., for his endless help and encouragement. I thank Dr. Indrajit Roy, Dr. Andrey Kuzmin, Dr. Wing Cheung Law, and Dr. Artem Pliss for their valuable support and technical help throughout the book. I owe thanks to my administrative assistant, Ms. Margie Weber, for her encouragement and for assuming responsibility of many of the noncritical administrative issues at the Institute, in order to free up my time for writing this monograph. I thank Ms. Barbara Raff, whose clerical help in manuscript preparation was invaluable.

Finally, I am indebted to my daughters, my princesses, Natasha and Melanie, for showing their love, understanding, and encouragement.

PARAS N. PRASAD
Buffalo, New York

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Technical Contents

Professor Stephen Arnold, Dr. Ana Karla Braz, Professor Edward Furlani, Professor Indrajit Roy, Professor Paul Knight, Dr. Rajiv Kumar, Dr. Andrey Kuzmin, Dr. Wing Cheung Law, Dr. Supriya Mahajan, Professor Gene Morse, Dr. Tymish Ohulchanskyy, Dr. Artem Pliss, Dr. Haridas Pudavar, Dr. Yudhisthira Sahoo, Professor Mark Swihart.

Technical Illustrations and References

Dr. Adela Bonoui, Dr. Ana Karla Braz, Dr. Folarin Erogbogbo, Professor Edward Furlani, Professor Indrajit Roy, Dr. Rajiv Kumar, Dr. Andrey Kuzmin, Dr. Wing Cheung Law, Dr. Supriya Mahajan, Dr. Tymish Ohulchanskyy, Dr. Artem Pliss.

Chapter Critiques

Professor Stelios Andreadis, Professor Robert Baier, Ms. Cathy Carfagna, Professor Heather Clark, Professor Howard Gendelman, Dr. Piotr Grodzinski, Professor Jiang Feng, Dr. George Hinkal, Dr. Aliaksandr Kachynski, Ms. Dana Knight, Professor Raoul Kopelman, Dr. Ewa Anna Kucz, Dr. Howard Lippes, Professor Mona Marei, Dr. Anil Patri, Ms. Melanie Prasad, Professor Marek Samoc, Dr. Stanley Schwartz, Dr. Hulda Swai, Professor Kenneth Tramposch, Dr. Paul Wallace, Ms. Hendriette Van der Walt.

Manuscript Preparation

Dr. Andrey Kuzmin, Ms. Barbara Raff, Ms. Margie Weber.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. NANOMEDICINE: A GLOBAL VISION

This monograph describes emerging interdisciplinary frontiers created by the fusion of nanotechnology, engineering, and medicine that provide a global vision to produce breakthrough approaches for meeting our current and future healthcare challenges. Traditionally, nanomedicine is defined as the application of nanotechnology to medicine; nanobioengineering is often used to describe nanotechnology applied to bioengineering, which includes imaging, sensing, diagnostics, blood fluids, and tissue engineering. This book brings a much-needed integration of nanomedicine and nanobioengineering to produce a broadened nanomedicine platform that utilizes nanotechnology to generate exciting new approaches for diagnostics, bioengineering, and targeted therapy. Such an integration could lead to multifunctional nanomedicines that can, as a single formulation, be used to diagnose, treat, and evaluate treatment effectiveness in real time. Collectively, these agents are termed nanotheranostics.

We live in a complex world where our health is determined by an interplay of our genetic inheritance, the environment we live in, and the lifestyle we choose. As the barriers between social, ethnic, religious, regional, and national divides come down and the world becomes a melting pot for the human race, healthcare issues (whether genetic, environmental, or lifestyle originated) do not remain localized. Today these issues are not the problems of a specific society or a specific nation, but a global concern and global priority. As technological advances facilitate rapid travel through geographic variation, different time zones, and diverse climates, infections are no longer confined to their old boundaries and instead travel all over the globe, spreading like wildfire. Thus, as new healthcare challenges emerge in the future, we must face them together as a single global community and find effective solutions for them collectively.

The healthcare challenges that we now face and can anticipate for the future are many, and they pose an almost insurmountable task for us. Figure 1.1 lists some major challenges that our global community faces. Despite tremendous progress in winning some cancer battles, cancer remains a major healthcare challenge. Take, for example, pancreatic cancer, the survival rate for which beyond five years after detection using the current diagnostics is only 4%. Consequently, there is a need for early diagnosis, preferably at a precancerous stage when many options to treat may be available, as well as for a more effective treatment. Some treatments for cancer can be very harsh, where the patient’s quality of life is seriously compromised. A more effective treatment or an alternative gentler therapy would be of significant value to such patients. New strains of infectious diseases, as well as existing ones, are another major challenge we face. New infections such as the bird flu or swine flu may originate in one small region, but it does not take long for them to spread around the world and become a pandemic. Infections such as tuberculosis and malaria, often referred to as poverty-related diseases (PRDs), are on the rise and spreading worldwide. Diseases that are manifestations of genetic disorder are again on the rise worldwide, as a result of a complex interplay of our genes, the environment, and our dietary intake. Depression and chronic pain are other healthcare problems what are highly detrimental to the quality of life that we wish to have.

Figure 1.1. Current and future healthcare challenges.

Then there are healthcare issues that we create by the lifestyle we choose. The examples given in Figure 1.1 are obesity and addiction. Obesity rates are rapidly rising, and of particular concern is child obesity. Obesity creates not only physical handicap, but also a cascade of other disease manifestations, such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. While obesity may start in many cases from a lifestyle of eating unhealthy and fattening food, it soon becomes a biochemical addiction in which overactive bad genes in the brain create a constant need to eat. Similarly, addictions to medication, drugs, and alcohol are biochemical in nature, generating specific biochemical signatures in the brain—again, produced by the lifestyle we choose. Such addictions have now become major health issues worldwide.

Aging is not a disease, but it does affect quality of life and increases an individual’s vulnerability to various diseases and infections. The world’s population is aging. Accordingly, more people are suffering from neurological disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease, impairment of body functions, chronic pain in joints, loss of hearing, and a reduction in eyesight. While we cannot permanently reverse aging (for which we must wait for rejuvenation therapy, discussed in Chapter 16, to develop), we can certainly use new medical advances in utilizing stem cells (discussed in Chapter 17) to replenish nonfunctioning cells, and tissue engineering (presented in Chapter 18) to replace nonfunctioning organs. We can also explore the promise of gene therapy (covered in Chapter 14) and stem cell therapy to treat neurological diseases, as well as to effectively boost the immunity to fight infections (discussed in Chapter 15). This book will address how an integrated nanomedicine platform provides new, revolutionary approaches to tackle these major healthcare issues.

1.2. THE NANOTECHNOLOGY REVOLUTION: REALIZATION OF ASIMOV’S FICTION

Nanotechnology is an emerging discipline of science and technology that has captured the imaginations of the world. Many countries have recognized nanotechnology as a national priority and allocated major resources to develop this area. It has a high societal impact, because it provides promising new solutions to numerous technical needs that the world faces (subject of global priorities), some of which are listed in Figure 1.2. In commonly adopted definitions, nanotechnology deals with materials, structures, and devices that are of dimensions in the range of 1–100 nanometers (1 nanometer is one billionth of a meter; nanometer abbreviated as nm) and thus are so ultrasmall that they cannot even be seen under a normal optical microscope. In reality, nanotechnology is not so new. Although it is hard to place an exact period when it was introduced, there are plenty of examples of their use in the production of tinted glass widely used in cathedrals and churches from the medieval period onwards. A beautiful example is shown in Figure 1.3, which is from the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. It was not until 1860 that Michael Faraday actually recognized that these bright colors in the glass were imparted by metallic gold or silver nanoparticle inclusions formed during glass processing. However, many consider Feynman as the father of modern nanotechnology when he stated in his famous lecture of 1970, “There is plenty of room at the bottom. …” This referred to the fact that many, many objects (particles or structures) of nanometer dimensions can be packed even in a small volume.

Figure 1.2. Examples of global priorities on which nanotechnology has made an impact.

Figure 1.3. Metallic nanoparticles doped stained glass windows in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris.

A major impact area for nanotechnology is healthcare. A nanoscale object (such as a nanoparticle) can provide new approaches to diagnostics and therapy, which constitutes the field of nanomedicine. Such developments demonstrate a realization of the fiction novel Fantastic Voyage by Isaac Asimov in 1966, which was later dramatized in a film by Richard Fleischer. These works presented a visionary fiction in which a submarine carrying a crew and a medical team was reduced to microscopic size and injected into the bloodstream of a diplomat. As depicted in Figure 1.4, the submarine navigated to a blood clot, which was then zapped with a laser beam to remove it and thus save the diplomat. In 2002, we used the term “nanoclinics” to describe the modern approach of using nanoparticles as carriers for targeting and circulating agents that can be directed to a desired biological site in a body. These nanoparticles can be armed with various diagnostic probes to provide on-site diagnosis and then treat and/or repair a disease manifestation. (For a more detailed discussion, please see Chapter 3.) This approach is an excellent example of how the imagination of yesterday can become a reality today, and it can be further refined to produce high societal impact in the future. As shown in Figure 1.4, our nanoclinic concept licensed by the company Nanobiotix has just entered a clinical trial for X-ray nanotherapy.

Figure 1.4. The imaginary nanosubmarine in the 1966 science fiction movie Fantastic Voyage, shown with the concept of a nanoclinic developed by us in 2002. This technology is currently being used in a clinical trial at Nanobiotix for X-ray nanotherapy.

The possible impacts of nanotechnology on healthcare and society are tremendous. Some of the features offered by nanotechnology for healthcare are illustrated in Figure 1.5. First, materials, when reduced to nanometer size, exhibit physical properties that can be different from their bulk form. Furthermore, this property may become size-dependent on nanoscale. An example discussed in detail in Chapter 5 is the light absorption and emission by nanoparticles of inorganic semiconductors, such as CdSe or Si. Once their size becomes smaller than a certain length, the wavelength of light they absorb and the resulting emission color (the emission wavelength) become size-dependent. These semiconductor nanomaterials are quantum dots and quantum rods, which are presented in Chapter 5. This size dependence can be utilized for multiplexed optical bioimaging using quantum dots or quantum rods of various sizes. Another example is metallic nanoparticles, which on nanoscale are not reflective. As shown in Figure 1.3, the metallic nanoparticles exhibit bright colors derived from new optical absorptions called surface plasmon resonance bands (also discussed in Chapter 5) that do not exist in the bulk metal form. The other feature is building multifunctionality onto a nanostructure/nanoparticle platform. For example, a nanoparticle can be loaded with a number of imaging agents for multimodal medical imaging such as optical bioimaging, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography (PET) which are covered in Chapter 8. Even in optical imaging, one can use different dyes or quantum dots combinations, and thus multiple color staining (labeling) for multiplexed optical imaging can be realized to enhance detection specificity. The nanostructured materials are promising scaffolds for tissue regeneration, an evolving field also known as tissue engineering (Chapter 18). For therapy, one can introduce a combination of therapeutic modalities such as light-induced therapy, magnetic therapy, thermal therapy, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy into a simple nanoparticle. Nanotechnology also holds promise for stem cell biotechnology, which is discussed in Chapter 17 (“Stem Cell Biotechnology”).

Figure 1.5. Features provided by nanotechnology that impact healthcare.

Targeted delivery is another important feature whereby one can introduce biorecognition (by antibody or other biospecific units) on a nanoparticle to identify a specific biomarker (signature) of a disease and thus target the disease site. One can build multiple targeting ability on the nanoparticle to enhance its specificity and thus increase its targeting ability.

Controlled release of a drug or therapeutic payload carried by a nanostructure or nanoparticle is another important feature offered by the nanotechnology approach. A nanoparticle offers tremendous structural flexibility for inclusion of various payloads and their controlled release. First, the volume of the nanoparticle can itself serve as a diagnostic or therapeutic agent (pure nanoformulation). Second, a diagnostic or therapeutic agent can be attached on the surface or included in the interior of a nanoparticle. The release can be controlled in a number of ways. First, one can introduce external control by using a magnetic, optical, or radio-frequency (rf) field to break a nanoparticle or cleave a labile chemical linkage in order to release the payload. Second, one can manipulate the pores on the nanoparticle, either by enzymatic activities or by local heating using light or magnetic field, to control the release kinetics. Finally, one can take advantage of the enzymatic activities in the targeted cells to break down the nanoparticle to make the payload active.

While nanotechnology can offer many benefits to healthcare, there is also a growing concern about potential health hazards that may be caused by nanoparticles. The short- and the long-term toxicity of nanoparticles in the body must be thoroughly investigated. With the growing euphoria about the vast potential of nanotechnology in so many industrial sectors, there is also a concern that airborne nanoparticles in a workplace can lead to organ damage and health problems. Thus, nanotoxicity (discussed in Chapter 21) is an integral factor in developing nanomedicine. Therefore, for each nanomedicine application we must weigh the benefits versus the risks.

1.3. NANOMEDICINE: A NEW ERA IN PERSONALIZED MEDICINE

Nanomedicine, inclusive of nanobioengineering in its broad scope, is a nanobiotechnology utilizing a specifically engineered nanoplatform to carry various payloads for new, minimally invasive diagnosis, targeted delivery of therapeutics, enhanced efficacy of an existing therapy/treatment, and real-time monitoring of a treatment.

The scope and applications of nanomedicine, together with nanobioengineering, are highlighted in Figure 1.6. First, in vitro diagnosis in a laboratory to profile a disease can utilize various body fluids/excretions such as blood, urine, saliva, sputum, and feces. Some studies even focus on using the exhaled breath for analysis of diseases. These body fluids can interact with specially designed nanoparticles to create biological responses for identifying diseases, even at the molecular and cellular levels. This can lead ultimately to a molecular understanding of disease mechanism and sensitivity of detection at single cell levels, which can be key to early detection and personalized molecular medicine. The in vitro diagnosis, using a multipronged detection and quantification enabled by a nanoparticle platform, will be able to elucidate drug intake, its biodistribution, its cellular pathway, and subsequent intracellular interactions. This information can be tremendously effective in drug development and screening of various possible therapies for a given disease. Since the testing is in vitro, nanotoxicity is not of concern in such a scenario. For this reason, I envision that a full implementation of nanoparticle-based in vitro diagnosis is the first realized application of nanomedicine.

Figure 1.6. The broad scope of applications for nanomedicine.

In vivo diagnosis with a nanomedicine approach offers the benefit of combining the various diagnostic modalities in a single nanoplatform (e.g., nanoparticles). For example, one can combine optical imaging and spectrometry with MRI and PET imaging to do a more thorough disease profiling based on molecular, structural, and morphological changes as a result of disease manifestations. Also, packaging them in the small nanovolume of a biocompatible nanoparticle with the ability to localize (due to the presence of targeting group) at the disease site enhances the sensitivity of detection and minimizes the potential for systemic toxicity of the imaging agent. The simultaneous presence of various diagnostic agents in the same nanoformulation also allows a medical facility to use them at the same time, without requiring separate preparation for each modality.

Of course, a major function of nanomedicine is to provide a nanoformulation that opens new modality of therapy or increases the effectiveness of an existing therapy, as well as to create the prospect of using more than one therapeutic approach in tandem. Examples of new approaches include (a) magnetic therapy using magnetic nanoparticles and (b) photothermal therapy using metallic nanoparticles. An example of improving the efficacy of an existing therapy can be demonstrated by (a) enhancing the biodistribution and circulation of a hydrophobic drug by using a nanoparticle carrier with hydrophilic surface and (b) targeting the carrier to localize a large concentration of the drug at the diseased site. Additional merits offered by nanotherapeutics include controlled and sustained release of a drug. One can control the release by manipulation of pores in the nanoparticle or external stimulation using light, magnetic field, heat, or radio-frequency field.

Finally, the biggest payoff of nanomedicine lies in the realization of theranostics, the combined function of therapy and diagnostics. In other words, the functions of targeting, effective biodistribution, multiple diagnostics, and multimodal therapy can be combined in a single nanoformulation. This allows one to follow the process of therapy to see (and monitor) a therapeutic process at work and to assess its effectiveness in real time. Real-time monitoring of therapeutic action will be of tremendous value to a patient, because one does not have to wait post treatment to determine the outcome.

1.4. NANOMEDICINE: A PROMISE OR REALITY?

In any emerging field showing great promise (and often generating considerable hype), expectations generally run ahead of the real progress. Naturally, the question may arise whether the field of nanomedicine is only a promise for the future (which may or may not materialize) or if there is evidence that nanomedicine is already impacting healthcare. This section provides a very brief account of what has been already achieved in nanomedicine.

Within the realm of in vitro diagnostics, in which tests are conducted in the laboratory on biological fluids outside of the body, nanotechnology is well poised to make a significant, immediate impact. There are already examples of nanoparticle-based colorimetric detection modalities, such as those used for home pregnancy kits, in which color changes are introduced by aggregation of metallic nanoparticles caused by the biomarker signature (expressions) of pregnancy. The surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors discussed in Chapter 9 are widely used in biological laboratories and biomedical research worldwide.

In vivo diagnostics, nanocarrier drug delivery, tissue regeneration, and organ replacement require introduction of a foreign nanostructure in the body. The procedure for regulatory clearance [such as by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States] is quite complex, as illustrated by Figure 1.7, and requires several steps of clinical trials.

Figure 1.7. The different steps of drug development and clearance by the FDA.

Data from http://www.phrma.org/.

However, several nanoformulations of drugs—such as for cancer therapy —are already FDA approved and are being used. In addition, many nanoformulations are undergoing different stages of clinical trial. Chapter 13 provides examples of nanoformulations of chemotherapy drugs for cancer treatment. Two examples are Doxil® (a nanoparticle formulation of the drug Doxorubicin, FDA approved in 1995) and Abraxane® (a nanoparticle formulation of the drug Paelitaxel, FDA approved in 2005). These are discussed in Chapter 13, along with other nanoformulations that have been approved or are in clinical trials for cancer therapy.

1.5. A NEW FRONTIER: MULTIDISCIPLINARY CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Nanomedicine, in its broad scope (of which nanobioengineering is a major component), is a new frontier that faces multidisciplinary challenges—from a proper formulation of nanoplatform, to bedside implementation of nanotheranostics. It thus requires a close collaboration between biologists, chemists, physicists, engineers, pharmacologists, and clinicians. Some key multidisciplinary challenges (which in turn provide opportunities for a given discipline) are summarized in Figure 1.8. For chemists, the challenges and opportunities include producing effective nanoformulations that are chemically and environmentally stable, as well as biocompatible, and that provide appropriate linkage and caging sites to attach and/or encapsulate the following: (a) various diagnostic probes, (b) therapeutic agents, and (c) groups enhancing circulation and producing targeting. Because a nanoparticle has a large surface-to-volume ratio, control of the surface composition and structure (surface chemistry) plays an important role in chemical design and synthesis. Identification of biomarkers and the selection of targeting group is another important aspect of creating a nanosize magic bullet that makes a precise hit of the target (in our case, a diseased site or a tumor). Ensuring effective kinetics of biodistribution, circulation, and selective localization of the nanoparticles at the targeted site is another important challenge that requires a multidisciplinary input from biophysicists, pharmacologists, and medicinal chemists. Multiple diagnoses, using a combination of various probes and methods and utilizing a number of physical and chemical principles, require input from physicists and engineers. A growing discipline worldwide is biomedical engineering, which cross-fertilizes biomedical sciences with engineering. This is a very welcome new discipline, which can play a major role in nanomedicine through the inclusion of nanobioengineering.

Figure 1.8. Multidisciplinary challenges and opportunities offered by integrating nanomedicine and nanobioengineering.

In vitro and in vivo diagnostics provide a comprehensive approach for early disease diagnosis, as well as for monitoring its progression and drug-induced depression. Active engagement of practicing physicians in clinical trials and subsequent translation to bedside of a patient is of vital importance. We have to engage clinicians from an early stage of nanomedicine, because their feedback is crucial in advancing the frontier of nanomedicine toward real patient care. Finally, a multidisciplinary effort is necessary to evaluate and validate the safety of nanomedicine. Toxicity concerns include chemical toxicity, immunotoxicity, organ injury, and interference in physiological functions. Hence, the continued development of nanomedicine requires thorough study at the cellular, tissue, animal, and human levels.

1.6. SCOPE OF THE BOOK: MULTIDISCIPLINARY EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND RESEARCH

Like any new frontier, advances in nanomedicine will require engagement of various disciplines as described in Section 1.5. One major challenge is that these disciplines do not even use the same set of vocabularies and acronyms. An effective cross-fertilization among these disciplines will require giving them common vocabulary terms, and the introduction of multidisciplinary concepts that can provide collaborators with the ability to understand and communicate with each other on real issues. Although a good number of books and reviews cover selective aspects of nanomedicine and nanobioengineering [e.g.: Jain, 2008; Tibbols, 2011], there is a need for a comprehensive monograph that introduces the integration of unified introductory concepts and provides a broad multidisciplinary exposure of the field to new researchers. This book is intended to fill this void and act as an introduction, providing basic concepts for the benefit of readers from the disciplines of chemistry, physics, biology, biomedical sciences, biomedical engineering, medical school, pharmacy school, and dental school, as well as from the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. To serve this purpose, Chapters 2–7 are designed to present basic materials, elucidate concepts, and provide an overview of the current status in meeting specific challenges of the areas covered in these chapters.

For a researcher either entering the field or interested in expanding his/her research scope, for a drug developer in a pharmaceutical industry, for a biomedical engineer interested in developing appropriate engineering tools, for a dentist applying nanotechnology for dental care, for a cosmetic industry person developing nanocosmetics, or for a clinician interested in nanomedicine therapeutic approaches, the subsequent chapters introduce specific applications and needs.

Each chapter begins with a brief outline of what the reader can expect from it, and then it ends with a highlight of the chapter. These highlights succinctly summarize the key points from the chapter, which is a very convenient listing of the take-home message from that chapter. For assisting in the teaching of this subject, each chapter also provides exercises. The chapters are written largely in a self-contained manner, so that it is not necessary to read the chapters in the sequential order as presented here—the reader can skip a chapter to move on to another one, depending on interest and need.

It is my hope that this monograph—with its comprehensive, yet introductory, coverage of the basics, applications, and needs of nanomedicine—will serve as a resource for educating and training a new generation of multidisciplinary researchers while helping to advance this new frontier toward applications needed for real patient care.

REFERENCES

Jain, K. K., The Handbook of Nanomedicine, Humana Press, Totowa, NJ (2008).

Tibbols, H. F., Medical Nanotechnology and Nanomedicine, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL (2011).

CHAPTER 2

THE HUMAN BODY

Nanomedicine involves the interaction of engineered nanoparticles and biological systems with intent of generating a beneficial result whether it is diagnostic, prophylactic, or therapeutic. These interactions cover the molecular, subcellular/cellular, tissue/organ, and whole-body levels. In order to grasp the nature of these interactions, it is imperative to understand some of the fundamental biological concepts and processes taking place, from subcellular levels to functioning of organs and organ systems, in the human body. This chapter introduces the basics of such biological processes, along with the necessary terminology and concepts of biology relevant for nanomedicine. The chapter is written primarily for those unfamiliar with biological concepts, or those wishing to refresh their background in this subject. The chapter will also serve as a source of vocabulary of relevant biological terms. A large portion of this chapter is adopted from this author’s previous book, Introduction to Biophotonics [Prasad, 2003], with the permission of the publisher.

The design of nanoprobes for biomedical applications relies heavily on the concepts of cell biology. Sections 2.1–2.6 provide a detailed description of the cell, looking into the various structural components of the cell and their functions, most of which modify the behavior of a foreign nanoparticle within the cell. The diversity of the cell types present in the body is discussed in Section 2.3, highlighting their unique structural and functional aspects and describing how they can be manipulated for a therapeutic purpose.

The next level of hierarchy in a biological system is a tissue, discussed in Sections 2.7 and 2.8, which arises from an assembly of different cells of the same origin. The organization of a tissue in terms of assembling of cells and extracellular matrix is also described. Finally, the various tissues that combine to form an organ and organ system are presented in Section 2.9.

Finally, this chapter concludes with an introduction to malignancies in Section 2.10, as a special case of tissue formation. Further references on cellular and tissue structures and functions are books by Alberts et al. (2002) and by Lodish et al. (2000). For biochemical aspects that deal with chemical building blocks, biosynthesis, enzyme catalysis, and cell energy production, suggested references are books by Horton et al. (2006), Stryer (1995), Lehninger et al. (2008), and Voet et al. (2002). General chemical principles are covered in a book by Solomon (1987).

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!

Lesen Sie weiter in der vollständigen Ausgabe!