CONTENTS

FOREWORD

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Market for Cellular Phones and Wireless Data Transmission Equipment

1.2 Organization of the Book

1.3 Part I: RF Principles

1.4 Summary of Chapter 2: Characteristics of RF Signals

1.5 Summary of Chapter 3: Mismatches

1.6 Summary of Chapter 4: Digital Modulation

1.7 Part II: RF Measurement Equipment

1.8 Summary of Chapter 5: RF Signal Generators

1.9 Summary of Chapter 6: Power Meters

1.10 Summary of Chapter 7: Frequency Counters

1.11 Summary of Chapter 8: VNAs

1.12 Summary of Chapter 9: Spectrum Analyzers

1.13 Summary of Chapter 10: VSAs

1.14 Summary of Chapter 11: Noise Figure Meters

1.15 Summary of Chapter 12: Coaxial Cables and Connectors

1.16 Summary of Chapter 13: Measurement Uncertainties

1.17 Summary of Chapter 14: Measurement of Components Without Coaxial Connectors

1.18 Part III: Measurement of Individual RF Components

1.19 Summary of Chapter 15: RF Communications System Block Diagram

1.20 Summary of Chapter 16: Signal Control Components

1.21 Summary of Chapter 17: PLOs

1.22 Summary of Chapter 18: Upconverters

1.23 Summary of Chapter 19: Power Amplifiers

1.24 Summary of Chapter 20: Antennas

1.25 Summary of Chapter 21: RF Receiver Requirements

1.26 Summary of Chapter 22: RF Filters

1.27 Summary of Chapter 23: LNAs

1.28 Summary of Chapter 24: Mixers

1.29 Summary of Chapter 25: Noise Figure Measurement

1.30 Summary of Chapter 26: Intermodulation Product Measurement

1.31 Summary of Chapter 27: Overall Receiver

1.32 Summary of Chapter 28: RFICs and SOC

1.33 Part IV: Testing of Devices and Systems with Digitally Modulated RF Signals

1.34 Summary of Chapter 29: Digital Communications Signals

1.35 Summary of Chapter 30: FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA Multiple Access Techniques

1.36 Summary of Chapter 31: OFDM and OFDMA

1.37 Summary of Chapter 32: ACP

1.38 Summary of Chapter 33: Constellation, Vector, and Eye Diagrams, and EVM

1.39 Summary of Chapter 34: CCDF

1.40 Summary of Chapter 35: BER

1.41 Summary of Chapter 36: Measurement of GSM Evolution Components

1.42 Annotated Bibliography

PART I RF AND WIRELESS PRINCIPLES

CHAPTER 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RF SIGNALS

2.1 Electric and Magnetic Fields

2.2 Electromagnetic Waves

2.3 Properties of RF Waves

2.4 RF Power Expressed in dB and dBm

2.5 Using dB and dBm to Determine an RF Link Budget

2.6 Alternate Names for dB and dBm

2.7 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 3 MISMATCHES

3.1 The Mismatch Problem

3.2 Ways of Specifying Mismatches

3.3 Conversion Between Different Ways of Expressing Mismatch

3.4 S-Parameters

3.5 Matching with the Smith Chart

3.6 Derivation of the Smith Chart

3.7 Plotting Mismatches on the Smith Chart

3.8 Matching Calculations with the Smith Chart

3.9 Using Parallel Matching Elements

3.10 Lumped Elements in Combination

3.11 Smith Chart Software

3.12 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 4 DIGITAL MODULATION

4.1 Modulation Principles

4.2 Multilevel Modulation

4.3 Special Phase Modulation Techniques

4.4 Digital Frequency Modulation

4.5 Upconversion Requirements

4.6 Annotated Bibliography

PART II RF MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT

CHAPTER 5 RF SIGNAL GENERATORS

5.1 What an RF Signal Generator Does

5.2 Supported Wireless Communication Formats

5.3 RF Signal Generator Displays

5.4 RF Signal Generator Controls

5.5 Modulation Architectures

5.6 Phase Noise of the RF Signal Generator

5.7 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 6 RF POWER METERS

6.1 RF Power Meter Basics

6.2 Power Meter Sensors

6.3 A Schottky Diode for Power Measurements in Cellular Phone Systems

6.4 The Power Meter Unit

6.5 Power Meter Controls

6.6 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 7 FREQUENCY COUNTERS

7.1 Frequency Counter Operation

7.2 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 8 VNAs

8.1 What a VNA Does

8.2 What a VNA Can Measure

8.3 VNA Controls

8.4 VNA Display Notations

8.5 Error Correction

8.6 Example of VNA Measurements on an RF Part

8.7 Swept Measurements on the VNA as a Function of Power

8.8 Example Measurement Procedure Using the VNA

8.9 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 9 SPECTRUM ANALYZERS

9.1 Spectrum Analyzer Principles

9.2 What a Spectrum Analyzer Can Measure

9.3 Spectrum Analyzer Block Diagram

9.4 Spectrum Analyzer Controls

9.5 Power Suite Measurements

9.6 Basic Modulation Formats

9.7 Example Spectrum Analyzer Operation and FM Spectrum Measurement

9.8 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 10 VSAs

10.1 What a VSA Does

10.2 VSA Equipment

10.3 What the VSA Can Measure

10.4 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 11 NOISE FIGURE METERS

11.1 Noise Figure Meter Setup

11.2 Noise Figure Principles

11.3 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 12 COAXIAL CABLES AND CONNECTORS

12.1 Coaxial Connectors

12.2 Cables and Connectors Best Practices

12.3 Popular Coaxial Cable Connectors

12.4 Coaxial Cables

12.5 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 13 RF MEASUREMENT UNCERTAINTIES

13.1 Mismatch Uncertainties

13.2 RF Power Meter Measurement Uncertainties

13.3 Uncertainty of VNA Measurement of Absolute Power

13.4 Uncertainty of Spectrum Analyzer Measurements

13.5 Measurement Uncertainties of Ratioed Measurements with a VNA

13.6 Noise Figure Measurement Uncertainty

13.7 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 14 COMPONENTS THAT DO NOT HAVE COAXIAL CONNECTORS

14.1 Using SOLT Calibration Standards Fabricated in Microstrip /

14.2 TRL Standards in Microstrip

14.3 De-Embedding

14.4 Including the Fixture Effects as Part of the VNA Calibration /

14.5 Annotated Bibliography

PART III MEASUREMENT OF INDIVIDUAL RF COMPONENTS

CHAPTER 15 RF COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

15.1 RF Communications System Components

15.2 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 16 SIGNAL CONTROL COMPONENTS

16.1 RF Semiconductors

16.2 Electronically Controlled Attenuators and Switches

16.3 Measurements of PIN Diode Attenuators and Switches

16.4 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 17 PLOs

17.1 Characteristics and Operation of a PLO

17.2 Phase Noise and its Significance in a Digital RF Communications System

17.3 Characteristics of PLOs that Need to be Measured

17.4 Example Procedure for Phase Noise Measurements of PLOs

17.5 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 18 UPCONVERTERS

18.1 How an Upconverier Works

18.2 Mathematical Theory of Upconverter and Mixer Action

18.3 Measurement of Upconverter Performance

18.4 Generic Procedure for Upconverter Measurement

18.5 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 19 POWER AMPLIFIERS

19.1 RF Transistors

19.2 Semiconductor Materials for RF Transistors

19.3 Transistor Fabrication Processes

19.4 Modulation Distortion Caused by Power Amplifier Nonlinearity

19.5 Measurements to be Performed on RF Power Amplifiers

19.6 Measurements of Amplifier Output Characteristics Versus Frequency and Input Power

19.7 Harmonic Power Measurements

19.8 Example Power Amp Measurements on the VNA

19.9 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 20 ANTENNAS

20.1 Antenna Functions

20.2 Types of Antennas

20.3 Measurement of Antennas

20.4 Duplexers

20.5 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 21 RF RECEIVER REQUIREMENTS

21.1 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 22 RF FILTERS

22.1 RF Filter Characteristics

22.2 RF Filter Design

22.3 Types of Filters

22.4 Measurement of RF Filters

22.5 Group Delay and its Measurement

22.6 Example Filter Measurement

22.7 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 23 LNAs

23.1 Thermal Noise

23.2 Noise Figure Principles

23.3 Intermodulation Products

23.4 S-Parameters and How they are Used

23.5 Example LNA Measurement on the VNA

23.6 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 24 MIXERS

24.1 Basic Mixer Performance

24.2 Selection of Individual Voice and Data Channels

24.3 The Removal of Image Noise

24.4 ZIF Mixer

24.5 Mixer Measurements

24.6 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 25 NOISE FIGURE MEASUREMENT

25.1 Noise Figure Measurement Setup and Procedure

25.2 Measurement of the Noise Figure and Gain of LNAs, Filters, and Mixers

25.3 Approximate Measurements of Noise Figure Without the NF Hardware and Software

25.4 Measurement of Noise Figure Contours on the Smith Chart

25.5 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 26 INTERMODULATION PRODUCT MEASUREMENT

26.1 Intermodulation Products

26.2 Third-Order Intercept Point

26.3 Calculation of Maximum Input Power

26.4 Cautions When Measuring Distortion Products

26.5 Example Measurement for Intermodulation Products

26.6 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 27 OVERALL RECEIVER PERFORMANCE

27.1 Overall Performance of a Typical RF Receiver

27.2 Formulas for Combining Gain, Noise Figure, and OIP3 of the Receiver Components

27.3 Software for Calculation of Overall Receiver Performance

27.4 Calculation of Overall Receiver Performance as a Function of Part Temperature

27.5 Switching the LNA Into and Out of the Overall Receiver

27.6 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 28 RFICs

28.1 Wireless LAN

28.2 Four Band GSM, GPRS, EDGE Handset

28.3 Annotated Bibliography

PART IV TESTING OF DEVICES WITH DIGITALLY MODULATED SIGNALS

CHAPTER 29 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

29.1 Block Diagram of the Complete Wireless Communication System

29.2 Analog Voice and Video Signals

29.3 The Digitizing of Analog Signals

29.4 Data Signals

29.5 Compression of Digital Voice and Data Signals

29.6 Error Correction

29.7 Typical Bit Rates of Communications Systems

29.8 Packet Switching

29.9 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 30 MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES: FDMA, TDMA, AND CDMA

30.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

30.2 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

30.3 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

30.4 3G Cell Phones

30.5 High Data Rate Systems for Cell Phones

30.6 Measurement of the Distortion of Digitally Modulated Signals by RF Components

30.7 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 31 OFDM, OFDMA, AND WiMAX

31.1 802.11 Specifications

31.2 OFDM Multiple Access Principles

31.3 WiMAX

31.4 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 32 ACP

32.1 ACP

32.2 Measuring ACP

32.3 ACP for North American Digital Cellular (NADC) Versus GSM Modulation Formats

32.4 Backoff

32.5 ACP Measurement Results for NADC and GSM

32.6 Zero Span

32.7 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 33 CONSTELLATION, VECTOR, AND EYE DIAGRAM AND EVM

33.1 Power Amplifier Backoff

33.2 Constellation, Vector, and Eye Diagrams

33.3 EVM

33.4 Measurements of Constellation, Vector, and Eye Diagrams and EVM on an RF Power Amplifier and on an IF Filter

33.5 EVM Trouble Shooting Tree

33.6 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 34 CCDF

34.1 CCDF Curves

34.2 Derivation of CCDF Curves

34.3 Comparison of Vector Diagrams and CCDF

34.4 The Effect of the Number of Active Spread Spectrum Codes

34.5 CCDF in Component Design

34.6 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 35 BER

35.1 BER (Bit Error Rate) Testing

35.2 Annotated Bibliography

CHAPTER 36 MEASUREMENT OF GSM EVOLUTION COMPONENTS

36.1 Measurement of EDGE Signal Distortion

36.2 Measurement of WCDMA and HSDPA Distortions

36.3 Annotated Bibliography

TERMINOLOGY

INDEX

Copyright © 2008 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Scott, Allan W.
RF measurements for cellular phones and wireless data systems/Allan W. Scott, Rex Frobenius.
p. cm.

ISBN 978-0-470-12948-7 (cloth)
1. Radio frequency integrated circuits–Testing. 2. Wireless communication systems–Equipment and supplies–Design and construction. 3. Cellular telephones–Equipment and supplies–Design and construction. I. Frobenius, Rex. II. Title.
TK7874.S36 2008
621.3845’6–dc22

2008004929

FOREWORD

In the late 1960s as part of a technical seminar team, I traveled with HP’s firstgeneration Automatic Network Analyzer (ANA), discussing and demonstrating new measurements and s-parameter design techniques. One of our stops was at a U.S. East Coast based defense organization, where a large group gathered to hear our talk. At the conclusion, a man with a skeptical expression on his face indicated that he had two questions. In a somewhat hostile manner he asked, “Are you telling me that with this new equipment I can reliably characterize active devices at microwave frequencies?” We assured him that for small-signal applications it was true. Then he went on, “If I turn off the equipment today, and repeat my measurement tomorrow, will I get the same data?” Again, we replied that after proper calibration, he will have the same results. Shaking his head in disbelief he said, “I cannot believe such b.s.,” and stormed out of the lecture hall.

It is hard to understand such a reaction today. However, until the introduction of the network analyzer, obtaining reliable and repeatable y-parameter component characterization with its predecessor, the General Radio RF Bridge, was not possible. Without accurate data or component models, microwave circuit design was more of an art than science.

Even after the spectrum analyzer, network analyzer, and modern power meters became available, relatively simple gain, impedance, power, harmonic and two-tone intermodulation measurements represented a large percentage of microwave testing. This is in sharp contrast to what test engineers and technicians face today, working on products using a wide range of mixed-mode signal processing. In addition, they have to understand and measure parameters, Bit Error Rate (BER), constellation and eye diagrams, Adjacent Channel Power (ACP), just to mention a few. They also have to be familiar with various digital modulation systems, including analog concepts. Last but not least, in the globally competitive marketplace, measurements must be performed rapidly and inexpensively.

The authors of this book based the contents on their extensive experience teaching continuing education courses to practicing professionals of the RF and microwave industries. Their course material is fine-tuned with the feedback provided by course participants and constantly updated to keep up with changes in technology. Measurements described in the book range from basic to advanced types, in addition to reviewing the necessary technical background of cellular and wireless communication systems. I am not aware of any other textbook having such a wealth of information, written in a simple, easily understandable style, without constant use of complex mathematics. Learning the techniques described in the book will elevate the value of anyone working in the field.

LES BESSER

Besser Associates
Mountain View, CA

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank all the organizations and people who helped make this book possible.

The idea began when the Test and Measurement Division of Hewlett-Packard offered Besser Associates the loan of a suite of RF test equipment for demonstration in their RF classes. Besser Associates is the worldwide leader in RT training, having trained over 40,000 engineers, technicians and managers in RF topics. We serve as instructors for Besser Associates. So beginning in 1998, we began a demonstration class on RF Measurements using the HP equipment.

When HP split off their Test and Measurement Equipment division to become Agilent Technologies, Agilent continued the loan of RF test equipment ot Besser. As the cellular phone and wireless data industry grew and became more technically complicated, so did the test equipment. We are grateful to Susan Owen of Agilent for continuing to support this ongoing relationship, which always allowed us access to the latest models of their equipment. We would also like to thank Ben Zarlingo, who offered extensive support and insight into the operation of the Vector Signal Analyzer.

Many other companies, like Anritsu, Rhode and Schwartz, Aeroflex, and Keithley, to name a few, also make excellent test equipment. Often they demonstrated their test equipment in our course. Along these lines we enjoyed a great deal of support from David Vondran of Anritsu corporation, who provided detailed background on the Scorpion Network Analyzer and noise figure measurements. We did not try to make comparisons between test equipments, but continued to conduct a course using the Agilent equipment, because of their generosity in always loaning us the latest and best they had. This kept us busy learning how to operate their continually evolving equipment, as the cell phone industry itself evolved.

The Besser RF Measurements course has continued to grow in popularity. Initially we taught the five-day course a few times a year, then several times a year. Last year (2007) we taught it 7 times. About a year ago, we decided to write this book, based on the RF Measurements course.

We would also like to thank everyone at Besser Associates, Founder Dr. Les Besser, President Jeff Lange, VP of Sales Annie Wong, and all the administrative staff and instructors who helped and encouraged us to write this book. We would also like to thank Allen Podell for providing numerous technical insights as well as practical tips on keeping our fragile lab components in good repair.

Finally, we would like to thank all the engineers, technicians, and managers who have taken our RF measurements course and made valuable suggestions on how to make it better.

We hope you will enjoy our book and find it useful. We hope that it will improve your understanding of RF measurements by at least 7 dB.

AL SCOTT
REX FROBENIUS

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 THE MARKET FOR CELLULAR PHONES AND WIRELESS DATA TRANSMISSION EQUIPMENT

The market for cellular phones and wireless data transmission equipment has changed dramatically since the late 1970s when cellular phones were first introduced and the late 1980s when wireless data equipment became available. As would be expected, during this time RF test requirements and RF test equipment has changed dramatically.

The original cellular phones, which were introduced in North America in the 1970s, were FM analog voice phones with a limited data capability of less than 10 kbps. These analog phones are now called first generation (1G). Cellular phones were digitized in the early 1980s to provide for an increased number of user channels in a given RF frequency band. These digital phones are now called second generation (2G).

During the 1990s the use of 2G cell phones increased dramatically throughout the world, growing to over 2 billion handsets worldwide by 2005. Eighty percent of 2G phones are Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), using digital FM modulation. The reasons for the expansive growth of GSM phones was (1) the excellent voice quality of the digital signal, which could accurately digitize any language, and (2) an effective worldwide management and billing system for all of its customers.

During the growth of GSM phone capacity worldwide, the North American cellular industry was divided between proponents of using a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) system similar to GSM, but carefully designed to be backward compatible with the RF part of the original analog system, and a new Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) concept advocated by Qualcomm, which provided greater user capacity in a given RF bandwidth. After extensive field trials conducted throughout the United States in the late 1980s, the CDMA system demonstrated an approximate doubling of voice capacity compared to TDMA.

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